Malaria toxin

Some examples of research under development include a synthetic conjugated polysaccharide vaccine against Haemophilus influenzae type B, which has been described in 2004 (O Fig. 34). The vaccine prototype was obtained by conjugation to human serum albumin (HSA) [173]. Furthermore, very recently a malaria vaccine has been suggested [174] which is based on the total synthesis of the malaria toxin responsible for the morbidity and mortality associated with malaria. The malaria parasite expresses a large amount of glycosylphosphatidylinositol... 

Jakobsen PH, Bate CA, Taveme J, Playfair JH (1997) Malaria toxins, cytokines and disease. Parasite Inununol 17 223-231... 

IgG is the characteristic antibody of all internal secretions including blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Normal urine contains about 5-10 mg/day. In secondary immune responses like malaria and helminth infection, very large quantities of IgG are produced especially to soluble antigens and toxins. High values are found in many parasitic infections. 

In addition, carbohydrate conjugates can be utilized to develop carbohydrate-based vaccines for treatment of diseases in which carbohydrate toxins or antigens, respectively, are involved. Thus, fully synthetic glycoconjugates might be developed into vaccines for malaria, and other parasites such as different bacteria, tuberculosis, tropical diseases, leishmaniasis and the Influenzae virus. 

Two commercial vaccines based on virosome technology are currendy on the market. Epaxal (Berna Biotech Ltd, Bern, Switzerland), a hepatitis A vaccine, has inactivated hepatitis A virus particles adsorbed on the surface of the immunopotentiating reconstituted influenza virosomes (IRIV). In Inflexal V (Berna Biotech Ltd) the virosome components themselves are the vaccine protective antigens (185). Recently, in phase I study liposome-encapsulated malaria vaccine (containing monophosphoryl lipid A as adjuvant in the bilayer), the formulation showed induction of higher level of anti-malaria antibody in human volunteers (186). Some liposomal formulations are under investigation in preclinical studies against Yersina pestis, ricin toxin and Ebola Zaire virus (77, 187). 

There are animal viruses, plant viruses, and bacterial viruses called bacteriophages. Animal viruses include mammalian viruses, both human and otherwise, avian viruses, and no doubt reptilian viruses. Additionally, there are insect viruses, from which, oddly enough, plant viruses may have evolved. (Some insects may carry an enormous load of viruses, but remain unaffected, although this is not necessarily the case for humans. Bee stings, for instance, have been correlated with melanoma occurrences, but whether these are attributable to viruses or to the toxins is apparently not known.) There are also fungal viruses and protozoan viruses (affording a potential mode of treatment or cure for malaria). The virus families are referred to as the... 

L. Schofield, F. Hackett, Signal transduction in host cells by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol toxin of malaria parasites, J. Exp. Med. 1993, 177, 145-153. 

Elimination of centrifugation and filtration in large industrial-scale isolations is a major driving force for the introduction of EBA in the isolation of therapeutic proteins. Streamline chelating (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) has been tried to purify two vaccine candidates for clinical studies His6-tagged modified diphtheria toxin, expressed in E. coli, and malaria-transmission-blocking vaccine, secreted from S. cerevisiae ... 

In diseases where rapid blood destruction occurs, as in malaria, typhus, or hemolysis due to organic chemicals, antibodies, and toxins, etc., much bilirubin is excreted in the bile, leading to elevated bilane values in the intestinal tract. Greater amounts of the bilanes are resorbed, and the bilane values in the urine are increased as determined by the Ehrlich p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde reaction. When the liver is injured or its activity is depressed, re-excretion of the bilienes and bilanes are depressed, and these compounds appear in the urine. If bilirubin is prevented from entering the intestines, as in cancer of the bile duct, the stools will be clay colored and bilanes will be absent. If the biliary tract is infected with fecal bacteria, a local reduction of bilirubin may occur to a biliene which is dextrorotatory d-urobilin, in contrast to the levorotatory stercobilin which is formed in the lower intestinal tract. 

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