Liquid reviews

Ionic liquids have become a focus of increasing interest over the last decade.1 Some of this interest is due to their possible use as greener alternatives to volatile organic solvents (see below). There is, however, also a great deal of fundamental interest in how the unusual solvent environment that they present might affect reactions conducted in them. Recently, there have been a number of excellent ionic liquid reviews concerning their chemical and physical properties,2 and applications in synthesis and catalysis.1,3,4 It is remarkable that in 1999 it was possible to... 

Caldwell, C. S., Hall J. R., and Babb A. L. (1957). Mach-Zehnder interferometer for diffusion measurements in volatile liquid. Review of Scientific Instruments 28 816-827. 

Handa, Y. P. and G. C. Benson. 1979. Volume changes on mixing 2 liquids— Review of the experimental-techniques and the literature data. Fluid Phase Equilibria. 3, 185. 

E. (2010) Thermophysical properties of pure ionic liquids review of present situation. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 49,... 

Chaudhari RV, Hoffmann H. Coalescence of gas bubbles in liquids. Reviews in Chemical Engineering 10 131-190, 1994. 

Giroud, N.M., Rouault, H., Chainet, E., Poignet, J.C. (2008). Ionic liquids based electrolytes for lithium ion battery. ECS Meeting Abstracts, 802., 3044., 1091-8213 Gollei, A., Vass, A., PaUai, E., Gerzson, M, Ludanyi, L., Mink, J. (2009). Apparatus and method to measme dielectric prop>erties (e and e") of ionic liquids. Review of Scientific Instruments, 80., 4., 0034-6748... 

The fundamental processes of charge carrier generation and motion in hydrocarbon liquids reviewed above appear to be sufficient to explain the onset of electrical breakdown under a variety of conditions. 

Maginn, E.J. (2009). Atomistic simulation of ionic liquids Reviews in Computational Chemistry vol 26 Ed. K B Lipkowitz, R Larter and T Cundari 2009 (Hoboken, NJ Wiley). 

Early chapters give good review of classical thermodynamics for liquid-liquid systems with engineering applications. 

While Eq. III-18 has been verified for small droplets, attempts to do so for liquids in capillaries (where Rm is negative and there should be a pressure reduction) have led to startling discrepancies. Potential problems include the presence of impurities leached from the capillary walls and allowance for the film of adsorbed vapor that should be present (see Chapter X). There is room for another real effect arising from structural peiturbations in the liquid induced by the vicinity of the solid capillary wall (see Chapter VI). Fisher and Israelachvili [19] review much of the literature on the verification of the Kelvin equation and report confirmatory measurements for liquid bridges between crossed mica cylinders. The situation is similar to that of the meniscus in a capillary since Rm is negative some of their results are shown in Fig. III-3. Studies in capillaries have been reviewed by Melrose [20] who concludes that the Kelvin equation is obeyed for radii at least down to 1 fim. 

In recent years, advances in experimental capabilities have fueled a great deal of activity in the study of the electrified solid-liquid interface. This has been the subject of a recent workshop and review article [145] discussing structural characterization, interfacial dynamics and electrode materials. The field of surface chemistry has also received significant attention due to many surface-sensitive means to interrogate the molecular processes occurring at the electrode surface. Reviews by Hubbard [146, 147] and others [148] detail the progress. In this and the following section, we present only a brief summary of selected aspects of this field. 

At a sufficiently low temperature, the phase nucleated will be crystalline rather than liquid. The theory is reviewed in Refs. 1 and 7. It is similar to that for the nucleation... 

Of particular interest has been the study of the polymer configurations at the solid-liquid interface. Beginning with lattice theories, early models of polymer adsorption captured most of the features of adsorption such as the loop, train, and tail structures and the influence of the surface interaction parameter (see Refs. 57, 58, 62 for reviews of older theories). These lattice models have been expanded on in recent years using modem computational methods [63,64] and have allowed the calculation of equilibrium partitioning between a poly-... 

An emulsion may be defined as a mixture of particles of one liquid with some second liquid. The two common types of emulsions are oil-in-water (O/W) and water-in-oil (W/0), where the term oil is used to denote the water-insoluble fiuid. These two types are illustrated in Fig. XIV-1, where it is clear that the majority or outer phase is continuous, whereas the minority or inner phase is not. These two emulsion types are distinguished by their ability to disperse oil or water-soluble dyes, their dilution with oil or water, and their conductivity (O/W emulsions have much higher conductivity than do W/0 ones see Ref. 1 for reviews). 

Films spread at liquid-liquid interfaces or on liquids other than water are discussed followed by the important effects of charged monolayers on water. Finally, the most technologically important application of Langmuir films, the Langmuir-Blodgett film deposited on a solid substrate, is reviewed. 

The liquid-crystal transition between smectic-A and nematic for some systems is an AT transition. Depending on the value of the MacMillan ratio, the ratio of the temperature of the smectic-A-nematic transition to that of the nematic-isotropic transition (which is Ising), the behaviour of such systems varies continuously from a k-type transition to a tricritical one (see section A2.5.91. Garland and Nounesis [34] reviewed these systems in 1994. 

An important distinction among surfaces and interfaces is whether or not they exliibit mirror synnnetry about a plane nonnal to the surface. This synnnetry is particularly relevant for the case of isotropic surfaces (co-synnnetry), i.e. ones that are equivalent in every azunuthal direction. Those surfaces that fail to exliibit mirror synnnetry may be tenned chiral surfaces. They would be expected, for example, at the boundary of a liquid comprised of chiral molecules. Magnetized surfaces of isotropic media may also exliibit this synnnetry. (For a review of SFIG studies of chiral interfaces, the reader is referred to [68]. ... 

Cryoinnnobilization procedures tiiat lead to vitrification (immobilization of the specimen water in the amorphous state) are the sole methods of preserving the interactions of the cell constituents, because the liquid character of the specimen water is retained (reviewed in [25]). 

Accurate enthalpies of solid-solid transitions and solid-liquid transitions (fiision) are usually detennined in an adiabatic heat capacity calorimeter. Measurements of lower precision can be made with a differential scaiming calorimeter (see later). Enthalpies of vaporization are usually detennined by the measurement of the amount of energy required to vaporize a known mass of sample. The various measurement methods have been critically reviewed by Majer and Svoboda [9]. The actual teclmique used depends on the vapour pressure of the material. Methods based on... 

A review of the multiple roles of vibrational energy transfer in liquids. 

Using Monte Carlo to simulate liquids is reviewed in... 

Relativistic effects are cited for changes in energy levels, resulting in the yellow color of gold and the fact that mercury is a liquid. Relativistic effects are also cited as being responsible for about 10% of lanthanide contraction. Many more specific examples of relativistic effects are reviewed by Pyykko (1988). 

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