Force internal

Here we have expressed the stress as the sum of the (external) applied pressure PappUed together with a static pressure Pstatic- which arises from the internal forces acting on the uiiit cell. 

In continuum boundary conditions the protein or other macromolecule is treated as a macroscopic body surrounded by a featureless continuum representing the solvent. The internal forces of the protein are described by using the standard force field including the Coulombic interactions in Eq. (6), whereas the forces due to the presence of the continuum solvent are described by solvation tenns derived from macroscopic electrostatics and fluid dynamics. 

Air and contaminant movement and turbulent intensity in the ventilated space are affected by different external and internal forces, such as... 

The pulsations can cause the use of excess horsepower when compared to the ideal or a system design that reduces pulsations and thereby improves cylinder performance and efficiency. The pulsation shaking forces in the suction and discharge dampeners (bottles) can be evaluated by computer analysis, and the magnitude and frequency in hertz can be reduced to an acceptable level by adjusting the dimensions (size) of the dampeners. The magnitude of the internal forces directly affects the mechanical stress on the nozzles of the cylinder and of the dampeners. Compressor... 

The principle of action and counteraction impose the condition that the acting external force must be balanced by the internal molecular forces. For an isolated diatomic molecule, this internal force (also called the binding force) is given by the derivative of the Morse potential (Fig. 19) ... 

For a large molecule, the internal forces acting on a particular bond are the result of the deformation of some finite number of intramolecular and inter-molecular bonds in the vicinity of the bond being ruptured. 

As a fluid is deformed because of flow and applied external forces, frictional effects are exhibited by the motion of molecules relative to each other. The effects are encountered in all fluids and are due to their viscosities. Considering a thin layer of fluid between two parallel planes, distance y apart as shown in Figure 3.4 with the lower plane fixed and a shearing force F applied to the other, since fluids deform continuously under shear, the upper plane moves at a steady velocity ux relative to the fixed lower plane. When conditions are steady, the force F is balanced by an internal force in the fluid due to its viscosity and the shear force per unit area is proportional to the velocity gradient in the fluid, or ... 

Irretrievable loss of matrix-forming cations and anions can result in permanent damage to the cement surface. This is visible as milky or chalky patches or even raised blisters. For this reason it is customary to protect, temporarily, the freshly placed cement by varnish. Once hardened, attack by neutral solutions causes failure only when a cement has been poorly formulated and contains excessive amounts of soluble reaction products. In this case osmotic effects can cause blistering or even disintegration under the action of internal forces, as Figure 6.22 illustrates (Wilson Batchelor, 1967a). 

Consistency, working time, setting time and hardening of an AB cement can be assessed only imperfectly in the laboratory. These properties are important to the clinician but are very difficult to define in terms of laboratory tests. The consistency or workability of a cement paste relates to internal forces of cohesion, represented by the yield stress, rather than to viscosity, since cements behave as plastic bodies and not as Newtonian liquids. The optimum stiffness or consistency required of a cement paste depends upon its application. 

This is a general result that holds for any structure x, and any internal flux x = [A°x — Axr]/x, and any external flux xr = Axr/x. In the most likely state, the internal force equals the reservoir force, Xs(x) = Xr, and the internal flux vanishes because the change in the reservoir exactly compensates the change in the subsystem. Hence the most likely rate of production of the total first entropy is... 

The final approximation is valid if the adiabatic change in the macrostate is relatively negligible, x — x [Pg.45]

In addition to the adiabatic transitions that would occur if the subsystem were isolated, stochastic perturbations from the reservoirs are also present. Hence the transition between the microstates T —> I in the intermediate time step A, comprises the deterministic adiabatic transition I H due to the internal forces of the subsystem, followed by a stochastic transition H —> I due to the perturbations by the reservoir. 

This result confirms Onsager s regression hypothesis. The most likely velocity in an isolated system following a fluctuation from equilibrium, Eq. (229), is equal to the most likely velocity due to an externally imposed force, Eq. (237), when the internal force is equal to the external force, Ts i =T. ... 

ESDU 78031 (2001) Internal forced convective heat transfer in coiled pipes. 

An alternative approach is to draw the cohtrol surface over the outside of the nozzle as shown in Figure 1.9(b). In this case, the weight of the nozzle and the atmospheric pressure acting on its surface must be included. The reaction between the fluid and the nozzle forms equal and opposite internal forces and these are therefore excluded from the balance. However, the tension in the coupling generated by this reaction must be included as an external force acting on the control volume. It can be seen... 

A droplet is initially flattened to an oblate, lenticular ellipsoid and then may be converted into a torus, depending on the magnitude of the internal forces causing the deformation. The torus subsequently becomes stretched and splits into smaller droplets. 

In addition to the external forces, the catalyst must also resist internal forces imposed on the pellet as phase transitions in the catalyst material progress. These transitions, including e.g. transformation of the amorohous silica carrier into crystalline a-cristobalite, precipitation of V4+ and compounds, and destruction of the carrier by the melt, may eventually cause the catalyst to break up in smaller particles or even to catalyst powder. 

A is generally positive and predicts (P/>P). B results from the shifts in internal force constants on condensation. An increased force constant on condensation leads in the direction of a normal VPIE, a decrease towards an inverse effect (P different temperature dependences. At low enough temperature A/T2 must predominate. The IE is normal and proportional to 1 /T2. At intermediate temperatures the B term, which can be positive, but more often is negative (see Section 5.4.1), may dominate. This accounts for the commonly observed crossover to inverse IE s. At higher temperatures yet, both terms decay to zero. The temperature dependence of VPIE can thus be complicated. 

Smith, D.E., Tans, S.J., Smith, S.B., Grimes, S., Anderson, D.L., and Bustamante, C. (2001) The bacteriophage straight 029 portal motor can package DNA against a large internal force. Nature... 

Several different versions of extraction cells are used. The main difference between the various cells lies in the presence or absence of internal baffles that modify the internal forced convection, in the shape and dimensions of the stirrers that drive the forced convection, and in the presence of grids (or screens) in proximity to the interface that help to stabilize the interface when the two... 

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