In instruction

Medical or surgical kit (e.g., tray) with reference in instructions for use with specific drug (e.g., local anesthetic). 

Solovov, A.P. 1965. Lithogeochemical methods of searching on the secondary dispersion halos and dispersion flows. In Instruction on the geochemical methods for searching of ore deposits. Moscow, Nedra, 43-95. 

Proposal drawings and data do not have to be certified or as-built. Typical data shall be clearly identified as such. For single stage units. These items normally provided only in instruction manuals. 

The distinction between micellar and nonmicellar association may not always be immediately clear from experimental variable concentration data, but Muker-jee6,23,24 has in instructive papers presented methods to distinguish between proper micelle fromation and other types of stepwise association. As he demonstrates, erroneous conclusions may easily be drawn and are abundant in the literature. 

Complete Solutions Guide, by Thomas J. Hummel and Steven S. Zumdahl, presents detailed solutions for all end-of-chapter exercises in the text for the convenience of faculty and staff involved in instruction and for instructors who wish their students to have solutions for all exercises. Departmental approval is required for the sale of the Complete Solutions Guide to students. 

For many years salting-out by high concentrations of ammoniiun sulfate has been one of the classical methods of protein separation. There is very little literature on the theoretical basis of the method, particularly as applied to the isolation of enzymes, where it has mainly been used quite empirically. The underlying assumption in most cases seems to have been that the different proteins are precipitated at different fixed ammonium sulfate concentrations, provided the pH and temperature are fixed. For example one may commonly read in instructions for the piuification of an enzyme that the enzyme is precipitated at 65% saturation with ammonium sulfate or that the fraction precipitating between 0.62 and 0.68 saturation should be taken. It is, however, a fairly common experience that when one repeats a published method the enzyme fails to precipitate within the limits given. Furthermore, where the purification of a protein involves more than one salt-fractionation stage, the limits are usually found to be different for the different stages. 

Pharmacological report (specifications) supporting all indications for usage as stated in instructions. 

To understand something means to assimilate it into an appropriate schema (p. 29). He takes the position that it is possible and desirable to target specific schemas in instruction. Indeed, he suggests that a major responsibility of the instructor is the selection of appropriate schemas for learners to develop. 

Finally, as will be described later in this volume, my own work on schema development provides strong evidence that individuals do not develop schemas without repeated experiences. As would be expected, the amount of repetition that is required varies from individual to individual and is an issue to be considered when we address the role of the schemas in instruction. 

The issue of how to identify an effective basis set of schemas for use in instruction is a thorny one for a number of reasons. At first glance, it might seem that one need only ask experts how they solve arithmetic problems and then extract or abstract their schemas from the responses. This approach has at least three limitations. The first limitation is endemic to all schema research People are not very good at telling us how and what they think. Almost every researcher who studies expertise faces this problem. As Nisbett and Wilson (1977) illustrated in their research, individuals... 

Other instructional issues. At many points in instructional design, one must make decisions first and confirm them experimentally a posteriori. We made two (at least) such decisions our choice to rely heavily on visual representations and our choice to incorporate both example and abstract description equally in the initial instruction. Both of these issues have been the focus of rigorous experimental study with SPS, and the outcomes of the research are presented in chapters 7 and 9. 

An important consideration in an investigation of schema development is the nature of the first pieces of information relevant to the schema that an individual acquires. Judging from the structure of many textbooks and the outlines of many class lessons, we should pay special attention to two kinds of information available in instruction, namely, examples and definitions. It is these types of information that are typically used in instruction, and it is from them that students will begin to develop their schema knowledge. 

Figure 7.1 depicts the case in which all relevant information provided in instruction is included in the cognitive map. This cog-... 

They did not recall uniform amounts of information about the five situations, however, and there were distinct differences in how much they remembered. Table 7.3 provides some summary statistics about students recollections. A multivariate test of repeated measures shows that the mean numbers of nodes recalled for the five situations differed significantly, F(4, 22) = 7.96, p <. 01. That this difference is not attributable just to the differing numbers of potential nodes that could be learned can be seen in Table 7.3, where the number of nodes found in instruction is given as well as the proportion of these nodes that were recalled on average by the students. If students had some fixed propensity to remember each detail they encountered in instruction, they should be more likely... 

There was great variability in the students memories for each situation. Some students could not recall any details at all about one or more of the situations, but these students were few in number. Other students remembered a great deal about some situations but relatively little about others. In terms of the nodes presented in instruction, one student recalled seven of the eight details about Change, three students recalled all four details about Group, and four students remembered all six details of Compare. These three situations were well understood and were described with relative ease by most of the students. No students remembered entirely the details of either Restate or Vary. These situations were clearly more difficult for the students to understand, and students varied greatly in their recall of them. 

Further research about the impact of diagrams is warranted if we are to understand their function in instruction and learning as well as their role in schema formation. It is curious that some students develop one of the uses and not the other. The role of visual representations in schema-based learning is examined in the next two chapters. 

We can draw a number of conclusions about the importance of both types of knowledge. First, although many students show a preference for one or the other type of knowledge, it seems evident that students learn more in the presence of both types of information than when only one or the other is employed. This seems to be the case even if the students cannot explicitly recall the additional information. One inference we can make is that it is important to introduce the abstract information very early in instruction so that it enhances what the students understand of the examples. A second inference is that the first example encountered by the student is very important and is likely to be remembered for a long time. Recall that in the first experiment, most of the example information that students related came from the initial example of the instruction. And in the second experiment in the absence of example instruction, many students nevertheless relied on the first example they encountered - which turned out to be the items of the identification task. Careful selection of the initial examples may turn out to be a critical factor in any instruction. 

Over the past 25 years, visual representations have received considerable attention under the various designations of graphics, diagrams, visual aids, or simply pictures. No matter which name is used, the issue is whether their inclusion in instruction makes a significant difference in how and what students learn. The question of their importance extends naturally to schema theory. The most interesting issues have to do with how visual representations fit into the knowledge organization of a schema and what role they have in its access and use. 

Some research about visual representations in instruction has focused specifically on the use of diagrams, such as those in SPS. For example, Willis and Fuson (1988) found that children s performance on word problems improved when diagrams were used to display the problems, but they offered little psychological justification for the finding. 

Wherever the diagrams were used in instruction for the Diagram condition, the labeled boxes of Figure 9.3 were used for the No-Diagram condition. All other instructions and exercises were identical in the two conditions. 

Schema-based assessment has the same focus as schema-based instruction but a different goal. The goal of the instruction is to facilitate the creation of schemas by students who experience the instruction. The goal of the assessment is to examine the extent to which learners have developed and can use the schemas that guided instruction. Schema-based assessment requires us to specify a priori the structure of the schemas to be assessed so that items evaluating those schemas can be constructed. In assessment, to a much greater extent than in instruction, the structure of the schema itself becomes a crucial factor because it influences the way that the test items are developed and interpreted.

Schema theory shapes both the nature and the order of information in instruction. 

One can argue that it is feasible to make an initial assessment only with respect to students development of identification knowledge, that is, that part of schema knowledge that contains the major features and conditions required for the situation to exist. This is the approach taken in SPS. The assessment may take the form of simple recognition (i.e., What is this ) or of justification (i.e., What makes it a good example ). The situations used in the assessment need to be meaningful to the students and to reflect with emphasis the characteristics developed in instruction. They should not be identical to situations presented in instruction, however, because students need to develop the skills involved in understanding the details of new instances of a known situation. 

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