Horizontal resolution

Fig. 1 High re.solution X-ray refraction topography of low energy impact (5J) at CFRP epoxy laminate. Image area 2 mm X 4 mm. Horizontal resolution 0.2 mm. The image represents selectively an area of debonded fibers of vertical fiber orientation.

The previous model setup included an identical horizontal resolution for ocean and atmosphere, and online coupling was implemented in the ECHAM submodel with an exchange rate of 3 hours. In the current model setup atmosphere and ocean are coupled online using the Ocean-Atmosphere-Sea Ice-Soil (OASIS) coupler [Valcke et al (2004)] with a coupling time step of one day. OASIS passes boundary condi-... 

Impact of the horizontal resolution on the representation of continental shelves... 

Fig. 2.2 Vertical z-levels with partial cells in the bottom level. Bottom topography is shown for arbitrary coarse and high horizontal resolutions...

Profiles in the Japanese Sea are similar for model and observational data. Concentration decreases down to 1000 m and remains constant below. Surface concentrations are lower for modeled profiles, most likely due to the emission scenario, that assumes identical temporal behaviour for all source points and does not capture all emitted mass. Due to the limited horizontal resolution of models, the topography of the ocean differs from the real one. In the Southern ocean concentrations were low throughout all depths, and for the measurements often below the detection limit of 6 pg/L. 

As seen from Fig. 1.36 and Eq. (1.31), the field-emission current is not very sensitive to the tip-sample distance xq. Using the topografiner, the best vertical resolution is found to be 30 A, and the best horizontal resolution is 4000 A (Young 1971, Young, Ward, and Scire, 1972). 

This important result is called the Young equation. It can also be derived by simply considering the horizontal resolution of the three surface tensions (i.e. as forces per unit distance), via standard vector addition (Figure 2.18). However, what becomes of the vertical component This force is actually balauced by the stresses in the solid around the drop perimeter (or TPL), which can actually be visually observed on a deformable substrate, such as paraffin wax. 

TOMS is also a satellite-based method based on a similar approach to that of SBUV, in which the earth s albedo is measured at several wavelengths around 300 nm. Unlike SBUV, vertical distributions of 03 are not derived using TOMS, but it provides better horizontal resolution (Ziernke et al., 1998). TOMS has also been used to measure tropospheric aerosols using the wavelength dependence of UV reflectivity at wavelengths that are not absorbed by 03 (e.g., Hsu et al., 1996 Herman et al., 1997 Torres et al., 1998). 

The GCM used in this study is the 19 layer European Center Hamburg Model, version 4 (ECHAM4). The horizontal resolution is approximately 3.75° x 3.75° (T30) and the time resolution is 1800 seconds. The model uses 19 vertical layers in a hybrid a-p- coordinate system, from the surface to 10 hPa. An elaborate description of ECHAM and the simulated climate can be found in, for example, Roeckner et al. [26] and Chen and Roeckner [27]. 

Kentarchos, A.S., Roelofs, G.J., and Lelieveld, J. (1999) Simulation of extratropical synoptic scale stratosphere-troposphere exchange using a coupled chemistry-GCM Sensitivity to horizontal resolution, submitted to J. Atm. Sci. 

Typically the models have horizontal resolutions of the order of 3-6 degrees, with the exception of one of the models which has a horizontal resolution of 8 degrees x 10 degrees. In the vertical, the models have from 9 to 25 levels. There is a wide variety in vertical domain, with the top layer ranging from 100 to 10 hPa. For some of the models the selection of upper boundary therefore is a limitation in the models ability to predict aircraft impact, which mainly occur in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. 

Ziemke J.R., Herman J.R., Stanford J.L. and Bhartia P.K., Total ozone/UVB monitoring and forecasting Impact of clouds and the horizontal resolution of satellite retrievals, J. Geophys Res., 103, 3865-3871, 1998. 

Humidity Sounder for Brazil (HSB) HSB is a four-channel microwave device measuring humidity (183.31 GHz) and radiation (150GHz). Horizontal resolution of 13.5 km. 

A typical surface profile is shown on the video display. Vertical resolution of 5 A and horizontal resolution of 400 A is claimed. As long as the deposited film can be etched off the substrate without etching the substrate, this technique can be used for any thin film. Its primary utility is for R D studies, as it is clearly not a production technique. The only film for which it is not suited is an epi silicon film on a single-crystal silicon substrate. A technique for measuring the thickness of these films will be described in the section on Infrared Spectroscopy. 

By the middle 2000s, the model used [42] had been physically and numerically enhanced by the introduction of biharmonic horizontal mixing of the momentum, free sea surface, and actual thermodynamic fluxes at all the open boundaries implemented with a 15-km horizontal resolution, 44 levels over the vertical and a 5-min time step [44,45]. In the latter papers, instead of the density fields [9], climatic temperature and salinity fields with a twice coarser horizontal resolution (about 37 km) were used based on a twofold greater database (about 100 000 stations). 

In [47], the assimilation was performed for the period from 1992 to 2003. As a result, BSGC fields averaged over 12 years were obtained they were compared with the above-described ones from old and new shipborne climatic TS data. The principal distinctions of the altimeter BSGC are related to its higher horizontal resolution (see above) and are manifested in the narrower and faster MRC (by 10-20%) and in the increase of the number of NSAEs, among which one finds all the above-listed eddies except for the Bosporus NSAE. 

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