History of understanding

Slightly out of historical sequence, the 1980 s saw the realization that the CSL did not just distinguish the mode of soil behaviour but that the difference in void ratio 

Returning to the evolution of understanding, a large earthquake in Japan demonstrated the damage caused by earthquake-indueed liquefaction and, lead to a different method of liquefaction assessment to that just described. The city of Niigata hes on the west coast of Japan and is underlain by about 30 m of fine 

Laboratory testing in the 1960 s soon showed that being denser than the critical state was not sufficient to prevent cyclic softening. The framework then emerged that a measure of the stresses imposed on the ground by the earthquake called the cyclic stress ratio (CSR)—should be eompared to an equivalent available strength of the ground, the cyclic resistance ratio (CRR). 

Development of methods to determine the CSR and the CRR have diverged in terms of the representation of soil behaviour. In the case of the CSR, it was recognized that site response affected the CSR and that the site response depended on the soil behaviour in cyclic loading. Rather simple approximations of soil behaviour became standard and widely used. Kramer (1996) provides a good text and guide to this aspect of liquefaction evaluation. 

Note the payed dam crest road that is mostly now under the reservoir following a liquefaction slide in the upstream shell (Photograph from Karl V. Steinbrugge Collection, Earthquake Engineering Research Center, University of California, Berkeley). 

---

In summary, the history of understanding delayed neuropatiry, the identification of the target protein, and the molecular events including aging reaction in the mechanism inducing the neurodegenerative syndrome, have been very closely related to the use of DFP as a tool for research studies. 

To gain an understanding of the composition of the reservoir rock, inter-reservoir seals and the reservoir pore system it is desirable to obtain an undisturbed and continuous reservoir core sample. Cores are also used to establish physical rock properties by direct measurements in a laboratory. They allow description of the depositional environment, sedimentary features and the diagenetic history of the sequence. 

Another way to determine durabHity is to find successfuHy sealed, existing field instaHations. Sealant manufacturers often have case histories of successful instaHations. Adhesion performance can vary widely with sealant type, substrate type, and cleaning method. Eor this reason, it is important to understand the sealant s sensitivity to cleaning practices. Often with difficult-to-adhere substrates, a primer is used. Sealant manufacturers can provide recommendations as to which substrates require primers, what type of primers should be used, and how they should be appHed. 

The chemical and physical properties of cellulose depend ia large measure on the spatial arrangements of the molecules. Therefore, cellulose stmctures have been studied iatensively, and the resulting information has been important ia helping to understand many other polymers. Despite the extent of work, however, there are stiU many controversies on the most important details. The source of the cellulose and its history of treatment both affect the stmcture at several levels. Much of the iadustrial processiag to which cellulose is subjected is iatended to alter the stmcture at various levels ia order to obtain desired properties. 

Because of the complexity of the law, the legislative histories of the 1909 and 1976 Copyright Acts are vital to an understanding of the intent of the statutes. These histories are sufftciendy complex that they have generated secondary works to aid in their reference. 

Ion Scattering Spectroscopy (ISS) is one of the most powerful and practical methods of surface analysis available. However, it is undemtilized due to a lack of understanding about its application and capabilities. This stems from its history, the limited number of high-performance instmments manufactured, and the small number of experienced surface scientists who have actually used ISS in extensive applications. Ironically, it is one of the easiest and most convenient sur ce analytical instruments to use and it provides usehil information for almost any type of solid material. 

The very gradual recognition that matter consists of atoms stretched over more than two millennia, and that recognition was linked for several centuries with the struggles of successive generations of scientists to understand the nature of crystals. This is why I am here combining sketches of the history of atoms and of the history of crystals, two huge subjects. 

It is perhaps not too fanciful to compare the stormy history of liquid crystals to that of colour centres in ionic crystals resolute empiricism followed by fierce strife between rival theoretical schools, until at last a systematic theoretical approach led to understanding and then to widespread practical application. In neither of these domains would it be true to say that the empirical approach sufficed to generate practical uses such uses in fact had to await the advent of good theory. 

Once the plan is complete, you will almost certainly need to submit it for final approval. Your company probably has well established approval processes. Make sure to understand these and adequately brief anyone who may present your project to project review committees or board meetings on your behalf. When preparing your plan for approval, it is important to briefly reiterate the history of the project. Although you have thoroughly prepared senior management through your various communication and consultation exercises, they will not recall all of the relevant background. 

The invention of the telescope arguably constitutes an essential milestone in the history of science. Galileo s turning to the sky an instrument - a very modest one by today s standard- would not only change radically our understanding of the universe, it would eventually shatter the foundations of science, philosophy, and faith. 

To formulate a model is to put together pieces of knowledge about a particular system into a consistent pattern that can form the basis for (1) interpretation of the past history of the system and (2) prediction of the future of the system. To be credible and useful, any model of a physical, chemical or biological system must rely on both scientific fundamentals and observations of the world around us. High-quality observational data are the basis upon which our understanding of the environment rests. However, observations themselves are not very useful unless the results can be interpreted in some kind of model. Thus observations and modeling go hand in hand. 

The above evidence brings us to the importance of experimentation with gases for the understanding of chemistry, and the desired connection with the representa-tional/symbolic and submicro levels. History of chemistry is of paramount importance here. First, tribute must be paid to the great contribution to the role of the experiment in chemistry by Robert Boyle (1627-1691). Consequently, a diversion to the history of the study of gases is deemed essential. ... 

---