Current energy

H. Alter and J. J. Duim, Jr., Solid Waste Conversion to Energy Current European and U.S. Practices, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1980, Chapt. 5 H. Alter andj. A. CampbeU, in J. L. Jones and S. B. Radding, eds.. The Preparation and Properties ofDensified Refuse-Derived Fuel, Thermal Conversion of Solid Wastes andBiomass, American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1980, pp. 127—142. 

Langton, J.P. 1996. Relative age, stratigraphic position, and provenance of new sedimentary formations in the eastern Bathurst Camp, New Brunswick. In Carroll, B.M.W., (ed.). New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources and Energy - Current Research, 96-1, 61-71. 

The US Department of Energy currently maintains an estimated five year supply of TATB for its Stockpile Stewardship and Management Program which is designed to ensure the safety, security and reliability of the US nuclear stockpile. The Department of Defense is also studying the possible use of TATB as an insensitive booster material because even with its safety characteristics, a given amount of this explosive has more power than an equivalent volume of TNT. 

The concept can be extended, but this suffices for our concept of energy currents in time, and the interaction of such energy currents with mass in a mass system. 

It also appears that the ultimate energy interaction is the transduction of energy form between the time domain (complex plane) and 3-space. In fact, all 3-spatial EM energy actually comes from time-like EM energy currents after 3-symmetry breaking [1,16,20]. 

Figure 8. The , and Ac vector potentials, field, and V x operator. The V x operator operates on the Ac potential energy current, to produce normal field.

The last constitutive relation defines the macroscopic energy current as... 

Tires for the boilers are obtained from the adjacent tire pile and from the community. Altogether, about 4.5 million tires per year are burnedI The Modesto Energy Project is required to obtain about half of these tires from the existing tire pile, and is permitted to acquire about half of its fuel from the community (referred to as the "flow"). For example, 2.6 of the 4.8 million tires burned in 1990 at the facility were from the "flow." This arrangement exists to balance the need to reduce the size of the hazardous tire pile with the desire of the company to obtain the most economical source possible of tires. Oxford Energy currently (1991) pays about 0.25 per tire for tires from the tire pile, but receives money for each tire acquired from the flow. The size of the tire pile will be decreased until a tire reserve remains of about 4 million tires.1... 

Commercial nuclear power is generated by nuclear fission reactions. When slow-moving neutrons strike nuclei of uranium-2 3 5 or plutonium-239, these nuclei are split, releasing energy. The energy is used to heat water and drive a turbine, in turn producing electrical energy. Currently nuclear power supplies more than 16 percent of the world s total electricity. 

Notice that, in each of the above examples, the proportionality factor between the commodity current and the associated energy current turns out to be the "potential" which drives the commodity through the conduit. 

According to Planck, blackbody radiation implies a universal dependence of the energy density per photon energy interval d(huj). This results in an energy current density djV,bb per photon energy interval d(fuj) given by... 

Fig. 4.1. Energy current densities per photon energy of AMO (dotted line) and AM 1.5 (solid line, [1]) solar radiation. The thin solid line is the spectrum of a 5 800 K blackbody emitted into the solid angle 6.8 x 10-5...

Even more important for quantum energy converters, e.g., solar cells, than the energy current density is the photon current density, because it determines the rate at which electrons are excited. Neglecting impact ionisation effects, the excitation of one electron requires at least one absorbed photon. 

The efficiency is found by dividing the electrical energy current by the incident energy current, given by the product of the incident (and absorbed) photon current and the photon energy huj, shown as the dashed rectangle in Fig. 4.4. The conversion efficiency for monochromatic solar radiation is shown in Fig. 4.5 as a function of the energy gap sq = hu. 

The generation rate AG is calculated from (4.2) for a blackbody spectrum of 5 800 K incident from a solid angle 6.8 x 10—5, as subtended by the sun. As can be seen from Fig. 4.1, this blackbody spectrum is very close to the AMO spectrum and gives a total energy current density of 1.39 kW/m2, compared with 1.35 kW/m2 for AMO. The temperature of the solar cell and its surroundings is 300 K, which determines a reverse current of only 3x 10-16 A/m2 due to the absorption of blackbody radiation from the surroundings. 

Fig. 4.7. Current-voltage characteristic of a solar cell with only radiative recombination and a band gap of eg = 1-30 eV in blackbody radiation at 5 800 K and an incident energy current of 1.39 kW/m2...

Figure 4.7 gives the current-voltage characteristic for a 2-band system with a band gap of 1.30 eV. The efficiency r is shown in Fig. 4.8. With increasing band gap q> the short-circuit current decreases and the open-circuit voltage increases. The efficiency r), taken as the maximum power for each band gap divided by the incident energy current density of 1.39 kW/m2, has a maximum value of 29.9% for a band gap of 1.30 eV.

In many cases, local details are not important and an overall balance of generation and recombination, of extraction and injection of charge carriers gives the correct results for electrical and energy currents originating from a solar cell, as we know from extensive experience. 

Emission of an electron from the surface of a metal caused by impinging electromagnetic radiation of certain minimum energy current increases with increasing intensity of radiation. 

Hydrogen production via conventional electrolysis largely depends upon the availability of cheap electricity (e.g., from hydroelectric generators). Consequently, only about 5% of the world hydrogen production is via electrolysis. The only complete hydrogen production process that is free of CO2 emissions is water electrolysis (if the electricity is derived from nuclear or renewable fuels). However, 97% of the hydrogen currently produced is ultimately derived from fossil energy. Currently, the... 

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