Enabling elements

The use of larger particles in the cyclotron, for example carbon, nitrogen or oxygen ions, enabled elements of several units of atomic number beyond uranium to be synthesised. Einsteinium and fermium were obtained by this method and separated by ion-exchange. and indeed first identified by the appearance of their concentration peaks on the elution graph at the places expected for atomic numbers 99 and 100. The concentrations available when this was done were measured not in gcm but in atoms cm. The same elements became available in greater quantity when the first hydrogen bomb was exploded, when they were found in the fission products. Element 101, mendelevium, was made by a-particle bombardment of einsteinium, and nobelium (102) by fusion of curium and the carbon-13 isotope. 

Measurements and Audits. The enabling element of continuous improvement is measurement. An old rule of thumb says that increased accuracy in measuring an energy use ultimately yields a reduction in use equal to 10% of the increased closure of the balance. A basic principle of economics is that any thing that is free is used in excess, ie, an unmetered electrical use is bigger than expected by at least 10%. Metering of the cost elements at each unit in a chemical plant provides effective accountabhity. Measurements should be linked via computer software to production as weh as to weather to result in maximum feedback. 

This Study has shown that reasonably uniform platinum crystallites can be made on y-alumlna, and that platinum and palladium can be segregated and maintained In that form for the most part even after exposure to high temperature oxidation-reduction conditions. Highly dispersed clusters of palladium, nickel, cobalt, and Iron can be observed. Cluster size determination could not be accurately made because of the lack of contrast between the cluster and the support. The marginal detectability by EDS for these clusters enabled elemental Identification to be made, however, mass uniformity determinations could not be made. 

Not all rocks can be characterized as successfully as obsidian. The success of obsidian provenance is due to the limited number of workable sources and the fact that each source, while being relatively homogeneous, is sufficiently different from other sources to enable elemental fingerprinting . This picture contrasts markedly with that of, for example, flint a stone not restricted to a... 

On the basis of the preceding discussion, it should be obvious that ultratrace elemental analysis can be performed without any major problems by atomic spectroscopy. A major disadvantage with elemental analysis is that it does not provide information on element speciation. Speciation has major significance since it can define whether the element can become bioavailable. For example, complexed iron will be metabolized more readily than unbound iron and the measure of total iron in the sample will not discriminate between the available and nonavailable forms. There are many other similar examples and analytical procedures that must be developed which will enable elemental speciation to be performed. Liquid chromatographic procedures (either ion-exchange, ion-pair, liquid-solid, or liquid-liquid chromatography) are the best methods to speciate samples since they can separate solutes on the basis of a number of parameters. Chromatographic separation can be used as part of the sample preparation step and the column effluent can be monitored with atomic spectroscopy. This mode of operation combines the excellent separation characteristics with the element selectivity of atomic spectroscopy. AAS with a flame as the atom reservoir or AES with an inductively coupled plasma have been used successfully to speciate various ultratrace elements. 

Figure 1.1.4 Scientific and nonscientific elements of the energy system. Multiple interfaces and control loops exist between the key elements. Science and technology are the enabling elements for all energy processes and additionally serve the important purpose of informing decision makers about necessary regulatory and behavioral boundary conditions.

Both demanding and enabling elements aim at lowering hurdles to employment, e.g. by replacing out-of-work benefits with in-work-benefits that depend on being active in (low-paid) employment. By topping up low wages ( make work... 

From an economic perspective both the compulsory and promoting elements of activation contribute to a strengthening of work incentives, return from employment relative to benefit receipt and - in the end - imply a behavioural change. In all countries, activation instruments such as integration contracts or activation programmes incorporate both demanding and enabling elements simultaneously. 

The octet rule illustrated for molecules of diatomic elemental fluorine above applies to molecules of chemical compounds. Recall from Section 1.6 that a chemical compound is formed from atoms or ions of two or more elements joined by chemical bonds. In many cases, compound formation enables elements to attain a noble gas electron configuration, ususdly an octet of outer shell electrons. 

There are numerous chemical or physico-chemical processes that can be used to provide analytical information. The processes are related to a wide range of atomic and molecular properties and phenomena that enable elements and compounds to be detected and/or quantitatively measured under controlled conditions. The underl)dng processes define the various analytical techniques. The more important of these are listed in Table 1, together with their suitability for qualitative, quantitative or structural analysis and the levels of analyte(s) in a sample that can be measured. 

The set of systems that maintains the healthcare safety-enabling elements and ensures their effectiveness. 

Most organizations have discovered that two locations can have practically identical audit scores on safety-enabling elements, identical or near-identical technology, and similar workforces, and yet report widely different incident frequency rates. Enabling elements are necessary but not sufficient for excellent safety performance. As we will see, there is a great deal more to safety success. 

For brevity s sake we sometimes use "systems" to refer both to safety-enabling elements and to organizational sustaining systems. Much current patient safety activity is focused at the level of these systems. Our (unpublished) survey of the May 2006 activity in the Patient Safety Discussion Forum, an Internet newsgroup sponsored by the National Patient Safety Foundation, revealed that almost 90% of the forum s discussion threads dealt with systems issues. The task of addressing systems issues can be safely delegated provided the... 

---