Electrolyte-regulating

Electrolytes regulate body water volumes by establishing osmotic pressure which is proportional to the total number of particles in solution. The osmotic pressure of a solution is expressed in units of milliosmoles (mOsm). Osmolar concentrations reflects the number of particles (molecules as well as ions) of total solutes per volume of solution, which in turn determines the osmotic pressure of the solution. 

The steroidal nature of adrenocortical hormones was established in 1937, when Reichstein synthesized desoxycorticosterone. Eventually it was clearly established that the adrenal cortex elaborated a number of hormones and that these compounds differed in their amount of inherent metabolic (glucocorticoid) and electrolyte regulating (mineralocorticoid) activity. The actions of these hormones extend to almost every cell in the body. In humans, hydrocortisone (cortisol) is the main carbohydrate-regulating steroid, and aldosterone is the main electrolyte-regulating steroid. 

Calcium is the principal extracellular electrolyte regulated by PTH, calcitonin, and D3. Extracellular calcium is a critical component of signal transduction across the plasma membrane, which regulates a wide spectrum of physiological events including muscle contraction, secretion of neurotransmitters and hormones, and the ac-... 

Houston, A. H. Madden, J, A. (1968). Environmental temperature and plasma electrolyte regulation in the carp, Cyprinus carpio. Nature 217, 969-970. 

The role of AVP in lliiitl and electrolyte regulation is discussed on pages 14-... 

In general, the adrenocortical steroids (or adrenal corticosteroids) distinctly differ in their respective glucocorticoid activities i.e., carbohydrate-regulating), and mineralocorticoid activities (i.e., electrolyte-regulating). It has been observed that in human beings the following two compounds occur commonly ... 

Several organs in the body produce hormones that affect fluid and electrolyte regulation, and removal or damage to one or more of those organs will affect the production of those hormones and thus the levels of fluids and electrolytes in the body. 

Regulations. In order to decrease the amount of anthropogenic release of mercury in the United States, the EPA has limited both use and disposal of mercury. In 1992, the EPA banned land disposal of high mercury content wastes generated from the electrolytic production of chlorine—caustic soda (14), accompanied by a one-year variance owing to a lack of available waste treatment faciUties in the United States. A thermal treatment process meeting EPA standards for these wastes was developed by 1993. The use of mercury and mercury compounds as biocides in agricultural products and paints has also been banned by the EPA. 

Buried steel pipelines for the transport of gases (at pressures >4 bars) and of crude oil, brine and chemical products must be cathodically protected against corrosion according to technical regulations [1-4], The cathodic protection process is also used to improve the operational safety and economics of gas distribution networks and in long-distance steel pipelines for water and heat distribution. Special measures are necessary in the region of insulated connections in pipelines that transport electrolytically conducting media. 

Galvanic or impressed current anodes are used to protect these components. The anode material is determined by the electrolyte zinc and aluminum for seawater, magnesium for freshwater circuits. Platinized titanium is used for the anode material in impressed current protection. Potential-regulating systems working independently of each other should be used for the inlet and outlet feeds of heat exchangers on account of the different temperature behavior. The protection current densities depend on the material and the medium. 

In applying electrolytic protection, galvanized tubes can be installed downstream from copper components in water boilers without danger of Cu " -induced pitting corrosion. The protection process extends the application range for galvanized tubes with respect to water parameters, temperature and material quality beyond that in the technical regulations [16, 17]. 

The integrity of mammalian kidneys is vital to body homeostasis, because the kidneys play the principal role in the excretion of metabolic wastes and the regulation of extracellular fluid volume, electrolyte balance, and acid-base... 

It was known as early as 1927 that the adrenal glands of mammalian species secrete a series of substances essential to the survival of the individual. The hormonal nature of these secretions was suggested by the observation that extracts of the adrenal gland and more specifically of the outer portion of that organ (cortex) would ensure survival of animals whose adrenals had been excised. By 1943 no fewer than 28 steroids had been isolated from adrenal cortical extracts. These compounds were found to be involved in the regulation of such diverse and basic processes as electrolyte balance, carbohydrate metabolism, and resistance to trauma, to name only a few. 

The corrosion of underground pipes and cables caused by the electrolytic action of stray currents from d.c. electric railway and tramway systems has long been a serious problem. Regulations limiting the maximum potential between tramway rails and neighbouring buried structures and the maximum potential difference between points on the rail systems have been in operation in the UK since 1894 and in Germany since 1910 . 

The copper obtained from this process is about 99% pure, yet this is not pure enough for most uses, especially those involving electrical conductivity. To refine the copper further, it is made the anode of an electrolytic cell containing copper sulfate solution. With careful control of the voltage to regulate the half-reactions that can occur, the copper is transferred from the anode (where it is about 99 % Cu) to the cathode where it can be deposited as 99.999% Cu. At the anode there is oxidation of copper,... 

The action is rapid, and the acidity of the electrolyte is unaffected. The error due to nitrous acid is increased by the presence of a large amount of iron iron is reduced by the current to the iron(II) state, whereupon the nitric acid is reduced. This error may be minimised by the proper regulation of the pH and by the addition of ammonium nitrate instead of nitric acid, or, best, by the removal of the iron prior to the electrolysis, or by complexation with phosphate or fluoride. 

Table 13. Separators for valve-regulated lead -acid batteries (liquid electrolyte)...

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