ELECTRICAL CAPACITY

X MW in 1986, of the power produced in the same year. Biomass-fueled electric capacity and generation was 19.2% (4.9 x 10 MW) and 21.2% (23.7 X 10 MWh) respectively, of total nonutiUty capacity and generation. Biomass-fueled capacity experienced a 16% increase in 1986 over 1985, the same as natural gas, but it was not possible to determine the percentage of the total power production that was sold to the electric utiUties and used on-site. Total production should be substantially more than the excess sold to the electric utiUties. Overall, the chemical, paper, and lumber industries accounted for over one-half of the total nonutiUty capacity in 1986, and three states accounted for 45% of total nonutiUty generation, ie, Texas, 26% of total California, 12% of total and Louisiana, 7% of total. There were 2449 nonutiUty producers with operating faciUties in 1986, a 15.8% increase over 1985 75% capacity was intercoimected to electric utiUty systems. 

Dielectric Constant. Dielectric constant or specific inductive capacity (SIC) is both defined and measured by the ratio of the electric capacity of a condenser having that material as the dielectric to the capacity of the same condenser having air as the dielectric. The dielectric constant of vacuum is unity. Dry air has a constant slightly higher but for most practical purposes it is considered as unity. 

As of this writing (1996), 354 MWe of privately funded, paraboHc-trough electric generating capacity was operating in California. These trough systems operate in a hybrid mode, using natural gas. Collectively they accounted for more than 90% of worldwide solar electric capacity. The cost of these systems fell steadily from 0.24/kWh for the first 14-MW system to an estimated 0.08/kWh for the 80-MW plant installed in 1989 (5). 

For some applications, either steam or electricity is simply not available and this makes the decision. It is rarely economic to install a steam boiler just for tracing. Steam tracing is generally considered only when a boiler already exists or is going to be installed for some other primary purpose. Additional electric capacity can be provided in most situations for reasonable costs. It is considerably more expensive to supply steam from a long distance than it is to provide electricity. Unless steam is available close to the pipes being traced, the automatic choice is usually electric tracing. 

Electrical properties Relating to the resistance, electrical capacity, and insulating characteristics of a conductor or electrical device. 

Trough systems currently account for more than 90 percent of the world s solar electric capacity. They nse parabolic reflectors in long trough configurations to focus and concentrate sunlight (up to one hundred times) on oil-filled glass tubes placed along the... 

When we deal with any spherical atomic ion in a vacuum, we may regard it as a charge sphere of radius a bearing a charge + or —q. We shall find that the correct expression for the total energy in the field is obtained by integrating (3) over all space outside the sphere. The electrical capacity of any spherical conductor is equal to its radius. The work to place a charge + or — q on this sphere is... 

But nuclear energy has problems in the U.S.. Since the 1973 Arab oil boycott there has been a surplus of electrical capacity in the US. and no large base load electrical plants have been ordered. Indeed, some 100 nuclear plants and some 80 coal plants on order were canceled after 1973. The sixty nuclear plants put on the line since 1973 (providing 40% of new electricity capacity) were all ordered before 1973. And because there was no urgent need, bureaucratic licensing procedures and litigious court attacks by anti-nuclear groups have led to construction times of a dozen to twenty years, and uneconomic costs. This compares to the four to six year construction times ofthe U.S. reactors built abroad and indeed to the four to six year construction times in the U.S. priorto 1973. 

At present there is still excess electrical capacity in the U.S.. In addition, the low price of gas permits the economic construction of new gas turbine electrical plants. But new gas plants, and methane leaking from underground gas production facilities and... 

Fig. 5-8. An interfadal double layer model (triple-layer model) SS = solid surface OHP = outer Helmholtz plane inner potential tt z excess charge <2h = distance from the solid surface to the closest approach of hydrated ions (Helmluritz layer thickness) C = electric capacity.

In the three layer model shown in Fig. 5-8, the electric capacity C of an interfacial electric double layer is represented by a series connection of three... 

Differentiating Eqn. 5—3 with respect to the potential, we obtain the differential electric capacity, Ci = (3oM/d oHP), of the diffuse layer in an aqueous ionic solution of z-z valence as shown in Eqn. 5-4 ... 

Fig. 6-10. Differential electric capacity, C, observed for mercury electrodes in dilute and concentrated solutions of sodium chloride (a) 0.01 M NaF, (b) 0.1 M NaF. = potential of zero charge Vnce = volt referred to the normal calomel electrode. [From Graham, 1954.]...

A simple parallel plate condenser model (Fig. 5-12) gives the electric capacity Ch of the compact double layer as shown in Eqn. 5-8 ... 

For a range of potential in which the interfacial charge is relatively small, the reciprocal of the interfacial electric capacity, C, of metal electrodes has conventionally been represented by a Laurent series with respect to the Debye length L-o of aqueous solution as shown in Eqn. 5-25 [Schmickler, 1993] ... 

In a range of potential where the interfacial charge is relatively small, the electric capacity, Cm, due to the electron tailing from the metal side is, to a first approximation, represented hy the capacity of a parallel plate condenser of thickness Xim as shown in Eqn. 5-30 ... 

Such a change of the thickness of the compact layer (thickness reduction, Acdip< 0) due to the electrostatic pressure may be represented in terms of the conventional electric capacity Cm given by Eqn. 5-33 ... 

The interfacial electric double layer is represented by a combination of the improved jeUium model on the metal side and the hard sphere model of ions and dipoles on the aqueous solution side. Then, the electric capacity, Ch, of the compact layer is given by Eqn. 5-34 ... 

The differential electric capacity C of the interface of semiconductor electrode can be represented by a series connection of three capacities as shown in Eqn. 5-62 ... 

Differential electric capacity of space charge layers... 

In the same way as described in Sec. 5.2 for a diifiise layer in aqueous solution, the differential electric capacity, Csc, of a space charge layer of semiconductors can be derived from the Poisson s equation and the Fermi distribution function (or approximated by the Boltzmann distribution) to obtain Eqn. 5-69 for intrinsic semiconductor electrodes [(Serischer, 1961 Myamlin-Pleskov, 1967 Memming, 1983] ... 

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