Early Beginnings

Lubrication is probably almost as old as intelligent man. Dowson has described early evidence of lubricants in potters wheels, on chariot axles, on sledges, and between stone blocks in the construction of buildings. All of these are from the Sumerian and Egyptian civilisations, between 5000 and 3500 years ago. 

But these applications mainly relate to machines of various types, and machines themselves only date from the same periods. In other words, from the first times when man s way of life permitted the design and construction of machines, it was only a relatively few generations before we find firm evidence that he was using lubricants in those machines. Should we therefore assume that his use of lubricants followed his invention of machines, or did his first machines make use of the knowledge he already had of lubricants and lubrication  

In fact it seems very unlikely that some of man s early machines would have worked at all without lubricants. One of the fastest ways to produce wood dust ( saw-dust ) is to operate a wooden bearing without a lubricant. A very effective way to soften and weld metals is to operate a metallic bearing without a lubricant. Without lubricants the early geniuses who invented potter s wheels or chariot axles would have generated such rapid wear or seizure that they would probably have given up and gone back to some useful activity like hunting. 

A lubricant is any material introduced between surfaces to reduce friction, and the earliest reasoning men must have been aware, often painfully aware, of some of the materials which reduced friction. Water itself is a poor lubricant for bare feet, wood or stone, but such natural materials as wet clay, ice, loose sand and smooth 

Where does molybdenum disulphide fit into this picture Certainly the use of solid lubricants must be ancient. Loose sand, ice and powdered snow have already been mentioned, but other slippery solids which were available and even locally abundant were graphite, mica, talc and molybdenum disulphide. 

Johann Jakob Wepfer (1620-1695) was the first to verify by animal experimentation assertions about pharmacological or toxicological actions. 

I pondered at length. Finally 1 resolved to clarify the matter by experiments. 

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The production and consumption of LPG in the United States increased dramatically from its early beginnings in the 1930s until the international energy crises of the 1970s when rising prices and regulatory restraints resulted in reduced domestic production. However, total consumption, including imports. 

Although the industrial synthesis of vitamin remains largely unchanged from its early beginnings, significant effort has been devoted to improvements in the condensation step, the oxidation of dihydrovitarnin to vitamin K, and in economical approaches to vitamin (vide infra). Also, several chemical and biochemical alternatives to vitamin have been developed. 

From the early beginning of treating HIV/AIDS, most health economic studies focussed on the calculation of provider costs. During the first years there had been a clear dominance of research on hospital costs for patients with AIDS, in particular,... 

In particular we want to acknowledge Herbert Muntau working from the Joint Research Center at Ispra, Italy, who was a major influence in the evolution of RM preparation and use and did great work from the early beginnings. We deeply regret that he was not able to join the project due to his enormous workload. 

From these early beginnings, computer studies have developed into sophisticated tools for the understanding of defects in solids. There are two principal methods used in routine investigations atomistic simulation and quantum mechanics. In simulation, the properties of a solid are calculated using theories such as classical electrostatics, which are applied to arrays of atoms. On the other hand, the calculation of the properties of a solid via quantum mechanics essentially involves solving the Schrodinger equation for the electrons in the material. 

The crystallinity of the so formed intermediate phases was checked by various physical methods. No XRD crystallinity was detected after the first 45 hours of heating, while other techniques such as Infrared (20,66,67), TG-DTA 01,32,67) or 13C NMR (32,33), which are sensitive to the presence of very small amounts of Pr N+ species occluded in ZSM-5 crystallites, confirm that very small size ZSM-5 particles are present in the early beginning of the synthesis process (Table III). Further IR studies of the ZSM-5 skeleton vibration bands (20,66) or catalytic tests (66) have confirmed their presence in B-type procedures. By contrast, and as expected, XRD and DTA techniques give identical crystallinity values in the case of synthesis A (Table III). 

From this wave function, one sees how even in the early beginning of molecular quantum mechanics, atomic orbitals were used to construct molecular wave functions. This explains why one of the first AIM definitions relied on atomic orbitals. Nowadays, molecular ab initio calculations are usually carried out using basis sets consisting of basis functions that mimic atomic orbitals. Expanding the electron density in the set of natural orbitals and introducing the basis function expansion leads to [15]... 

Since its early beginnings more than a half-century ago, the field of polymers has attracted a number of brilliant minds and has benefitted from the contributions of many bright minds. The scientific researches of Herman Mark, especially his pioneering work on polymer chain structure by X-ray diffraction, are part of such contributions. But that is not where his uniqueness lies. His special and unique contribution has been and still is in "spreading the gospel" of polymers, to borrow the phrase from great spiritual movements. But unlike the proselytes of such movements, who seek to "convert" people,... 

Pellizzari reported in 1884 a study of the reaction of dry ammonia vapours with dried and pulverized phenols and carboxyhc acids [17]. However, in spite of this early beginning, a systematic exploration of solvent-less processes of this type was not undertaken until the early 1970s by Paul and Curtin [18-20] and subsequently by others [21]. 

In the present article we have reviewed the utility and progress of the FS theory from the early beginning in the 1940 s to the recent success in interpreting experimental results. It... 

The history of the development of antitoxins in combating bacterial infection dates back to the early beginnings of organized bacteriology. Belrring was tile first to show that animals that were immune to diphtheria contained, in their serum, factors which were capable of neutralizing the poisonous effect of the toxins derived from the diphtheria bacillus. While this work was earned out in 1890, prior to many of the great discoveries of mass immunization, and much later the antibiotics, there yet remains a place for antitoxins in medical treatment or prophylaxis for some diseases, such as tetanus and botulism,... 

There are two fundamental classifications of flavors (1) natural, and (2) synthetic or artificial. Prior to die early beginnings of organic chemistry (circa 1828). all flavors, essences, aromas, and like substances were derived from naturally occurring materials. 

The book consists of two parts A summary and critical examination of chemical theory as it developed from early beginnings through the dramatic events of the twentieth century, and a reconstruction based on a reinterpretation of the three seminal theories of periodicity, relativity and quantum mechanics in chemical context. 

Staff, Continuous solvent extraction The early beginnings of a giant industry, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc., 54, 202A-207A (1977). 

Since its early beginnings, probably the best known application of DNMR spectroscopy has been to the evaluation of kinetic barrier heights. The methods by which rate constants for the conformational processes have been obtained from NMR spectra have changed over time. In the vast majority of DNMR studies, the desired... 

Aromatic compounds have been used as electron acceptors and electron donors in PET-processes since the early beginnings of photochemistry. Chapter 4 of this volume is devoted to this still fascinating area mainly from the synthetic point of view. Special emphasis is given to recombination reactions of radical ions, electrophilic, nucleophilic and radicalic additions. The following article extends this topic to recent advances of PET in organic... 

In the Middle Ages, Muslim scientists Jabir bin Hayyan - the first to use lab equipment - was known as Geber, or the Father of Chemistry in Europe and Abu Bakr-AI-Razi (865-925) both greatly contributed in chemistry s early beginnings. 

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