Drugs, response nicotine

Marks, M., Stitzel, J., Collins, A. Time course study of the effects of chronic nicotine infusion on drug response and brain receptors. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 235 619, 1985. 

Marks Ml, Stitzel lA, et al (1985) Time course study of the effects of chronic nicotine infusion on drug response and brain receptors. 1 Pharmacol Exp Ther 235(3) 619-628 Marshall DL, Redfem PH, et al (1997) Presynaptic nicotinic modulation of dopamine release in the three ascending pathways studied by in vivo microdialysis comparison of naive and chronic nicotine-treated rats. 1 Neurochem 68(4) 1511-1519 Martinez D, Gil R, et al (2005) Alcohol dependence is associated with blunted dopamine transmission in the ventral striatum. Biol Psychiatry 58(10) 779-786 McClernon El, Kozink RV, Rose IE (2007) Individual differences in nicotine dependence, withdrawal symptoms, and sex predict transient fMRl-BOLD responses to smoking cues. Neuropsychopharmacology 33(9) 2148-2147... 

Tolerance is characterized by reduced responsiveness to the initial effects of a drug after repeated exposure or reduced responsiveness to a related compound (i.e., cross-tolerance). Animal studies have not provided conclusive evidence of tolerance to the effects of the centrally active compounds in toluene or trichloroethane (Moser and Balster 1981 Moser et al. 1985). Observations in humans, on the other hand, have documented pronounced tolerance among subjects who chronically inhale substances with high concentrations of toluene (Glaser and Massengale 1962 Press and Done 1967) and butane (Evans and Raistrick 1987). Kono et al. (2001) showed that tolerance to the reinforcing effects of solvents is comparable to that conditioned by nicotine but less intense than that reported with alcohol or methamphetamine use. 

Nicotine is responsible for the highly addictive properties of tobacco products. Addiction occurs in 30% of those who experiment with tobacco products, and more than 80% of those who attempt to quit smoking will relapse within a year. Withdrawal from nicotine produces a syndrome characterized by nicotine craving as well as dysphoria, anxiety, irritability, restlessness and increased appetite. It is treated with nicotine replacement therapies, such as nicotine gum and patches, and/or with buproprion, a drug that is classified as an antidepressant but has multiple and complex effects in brain. Buproprion reduces craving in some smokers. Nicotine addiction has been reviewed recently at cellular and systems levels [38-41]. 

---