Downscaling techniques

A relatively simple statistical downscaling technique which may be applied quickly to a large number of models is the use of correction factors based on monthly relationships between observed data collected at a particular weather station and the relevant RCM control data set for the appropriate grid-cell [40], These monthly differences (for temperature) and ratios (for precipitation) between the control and the point observations (i.e. not the gridded interpolated CRU data set) can then be used to correct the daily RCM control and scenario data. This gives bias-corrected scenarios of temperature and precipitation, which can then be used as input to hydrological models for the exploration of various management and policy formulations. 

The above unsuccesful attempt at downscaling of a laboratory trickle-flow reactor which was made some 30 years ago, suggests that representative testing of practical catalysts for trickle-flow processes can only be done in relatively large pilot plant reactors. However, as will be clear from the discussion in earlier parts of this paper, the technique of catalyst bed dilution with fine inert particles has opened the way to small-scale testing of catalysts for these processes as well. 

The downscaling limit of Ta2Os capacitors is estimated to be around an equivalent oxide thickness of 1.5 nm [284]. Combined with polysilicon electrode techniques, such as HSG, Ta205 capacitors will be available for 1 Gb DRAMs and beyond. 

The most straightforward application of magnetic fields for microfluidics is the use of magnetic beads as a solid phase in a heterogeneous assay. This method is in fact a direct downscaling of a technique used very commonly in biology laboratories. In the first step, chemicals or... 

The development of methods enabling to deliver liquid on a surface without any contact has attracted a lot of attention. The main advantage of these methods is their compatibility with any type of substrates, especially those with irregular surfaces that are difficult to pattern in direct contact. Nevertheless, the downscaling of these techniques is a challenging issue. In the following, we briefly review several strategies that have been pursued to produce and deliver ink droplets. 

Putting a liquid-filled capillary in contact with a surface produces a liquid meniscus, which then spreads onto the substrate, provided the latter is not too hydrophobic. Pipettes have therefore been used for the local deposition of liquids by direct contact on substrates. The downscaling of pipetting techniques by profiling capillaries with micron-scale apertures benefitted from the association with electrochemistry in the conhned droplet volume. Scanning ionic conductance microscopy which has recently become... 

Trilayer actuators architecture have been proposed in 1996 by Baughman (1996) to allow their operation in air because die middle layer acts as an ion reservoir necessary for oxidation-reduction process. Several of diese macroactuator architectures have been realized using classical elecfrodeposition mediods of CP. This architecture has been downscaled to microsized structures for die first time in 2009 by G. Alici et al. (2009). They used die laser ablation to cut die PPy/PVDF/ PPy trilayer actuators into microbeam shapes. They were able to fabricate trilayer microactuators with a size of 850 x 250 x 170 pm using this technique. 

Correct design and downscaling of the normal flow injection system allow the incorporation of a variety of analytical techniques for the detection of different chemical species. Electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry (Wang and Chen, 2008), inductively couple plasma atomic emission spectroscopy or mass spectrometry (Wang and Hansen, 2001), electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (Ogata et al., 2002, 2004), and chro-matographic/electrophoretic column separation systems coupled to UV-Vis or mass spec-trometric detection (Wu et al., 2003 Quintana et al., 2006) are among the detection and separation systems that have been coupled with flow injection devices. 

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