Distance between

This is the reason for numerous studies that have been conducted with X-ray diffraction, a method not described here. Suffice it to say that X-ray diffraction is useful in providing values of aromaticity, the distances between layers and between aliphatic chains, the thickness of particles, etc. 

As a liquid approaches its critical conditions, its density decreases and consequently the distance between molecules increases resulting in a rapid decrease in viscosity. 

Let us consider that equivalent planar OSD are completely characterized by a parameter vector p = where I is the ligament (the distance between the bottom of the OSD and the... 

For the case of a double-D coil we multiply each matrix element with an element shifted by a constant distance of the same line. This is done in x- and y-direction. The distance between the two elements is the correlation length X for filtering in x-direction and a second correlation length for the movement in y-direction. Thus one gets two new matrices Ax and Ax for the filtering from the left to the right (positiv x-direction) and vice versa (negativ x-direction). 

It is the indication of a transfer of energy from a distance between the solenoid and the conductor material. The cause of the variation of impedance observed is the modification of the magnetic flow through the solenoid. The flow varies in amplitude and in phase. 

The variation of the Z of the solenoid mark a transfer of energy at distance between the solenoid and the conducting piece. The variation of the impedance is due to the modification of the magnetic flux d) crossing the solenoid. In fact, the flux differs in amplitude and in phase when the conducting piece is near the solenoid. Similarly, the flux will be influenced by the presence of defect. 

All described sensor probes scan an edge of the same material to get the characteristic step response of each system. The derivation of this curve (see eq.(4) ) causes the impulse responses. The measurement frequency is 100 kHz, the distance between sensor and structure 0. Chapter 4.2.1. and 4.2.2. compare several sensors and measurement methods and show the importance of the impulse response for the comparison. 

Figure 3 presents the dependence of the modulus of the e.m.f induced in the pick-up coil, on the distance between the transducer and the discontinuity, obtained both theoretically using the Rel. (6) and experimentally. The working fi equency is 5 kHz. The transducer has been balanced for a material zone far from the discontinuity. The modulus of the output e.m.f of the utilized control equipment was devided by the overall gain of the measuring chain, to directly obtain the transducer output voltage. 

Figure 5 The modification of intensity of one of the central points of the hole images vs. the distance between the plane of discontinuities and the plane of the holograph...

The eddy current method allows to evalute the state of stress in ferromagnetic material. The given method is used for determining own stress as well as that formed in effect of outside load. With regard to physical principles of own stress analysis, the dependence between the magnetic permeability and the distance between atomic surfaces is utilized. 

In effect of loads acting in the scope of elastic deformations (proportional) in polycristalline bodies, changes in distances between atomic surfaces of the net are observed, which change the initial magnetic permeability. 

Were we can give these equations for the heat transfer process along radius R. The other processes of heat transfer can be simulated analogously by changing formula for heat transfer area and distances between centers of cells. For Dirichlet cells, bordering a gas medium, an equation of heat balance can be written in the form ... 

T- and mapped to the image plane considering scaling (Si,Sy) of the coordinate axes and a shift Ci,Cy) of the center of the coordinate system. The distance between X-ray source and image intensifier tube is called /. 

The squares visible in figure 5 represent the position of hard particles at the moment of recording. Therefore the time distance between two video records is about 1,3 ms at a record rate of 750 Hz. With these data it is possible to calculate particle velocity. Figure 8 shows the particle movement in the molten bath caused by flow processes. The particles are captured at the contour of the molten bath and transported into the liquid phase. 

It is shown how phase contrast X-ray microtomography can be realised with a (commercial) polychromatic X-ray microfocus tomograph provided the source size and the resolution of the detector are sufficiently small and the distance between source and detector is sufficiently large. The technique opens perspectives for high resolution tomography of light objects... 

Additionally the distance between the camera and inspection-surface has to be controlled. The software for flaw detection was developped in a way that enables the camera of measuring different areas of the parts with different sensitivities in a single step and to cover areas that not have to be inspected. 

In order to obtain the interested dependences it is necessary to fix the interconnection between the detected voltages U, Uo and the object parameters T, 1, h, the distances between tbe electrodes Rt, Rp are given (Fig. 1). 

Fig. 4 Calibration characteristics of electropotential transformer in case of distance between current electrodes (R. ) varying for long cracks.

Almost all microwave methods are non-contact [1] and allow simultaneous measurement of the magnitude and the frequency of vibrations. The distance between the inspected surface and microwave sensor can vary from several millimeters to a few meters. However, the accuracy of the measurement of vibration magnitude also depends on a distance between the microwave sensor and the object as well as the shape of the inspected surface. 

A two-dimensional slice may be taken either parallel to one of the principal co-ordinate planes (X-Y, X-Z and Y-Z) selected from a menu, or in any arbitrary orientation defined on screen by the user. Once a slice through the data has been taken, and displayed on the screen, a number of tools are available to assist the operator with making measurements of indications. These tools allow measurement of distance between two points, calculation of 6dB or maximum amplitude length of a flaw, plotting of a 6dB contour, and textual aimotation of the view. Figure 11 shows 6dB sizing and annotation applied to a lack of fusion example. 

The ethemet connection is combined with the power supply to the PSP-4 and the connected scanner into a single standard cable, that can be used for distances up to 100 m. By using special cables, the distance between the PSP-4 and the eontrol unit can be extended to practieally any distance. 

A piezo-composite consists of a piezoelectric active phase and a passive plastic phase [2]. In the 1-3-configuration adopted in our case, piezoelectric rods parallely aligned in thickness direction are imbedded in a three-dimensional plastic matrix (Fig. 1). The distance between the rods has to be chosen inferior to the half wave length of the shear wave in the matrix material ensuring that the whole compound is vibrating as a quasi-homogeneous material. 

Fig. 2 shows the CFRP-sandwich specimen and the transducer mounted on the scanner. Fig. 23 presents a C-scan of the specimen as first interesting result. Only the defects visible from the outside are indicated. The distance between transducer and specimen was smaller than the focal length, so that the angle of incidence at the edge of the sound beam converts the longitudinal waves to Rayleigh-waves in the specimen. These waves provide a very sharp image of the surface. This method opens the possibility for a non-contact acoustic microscope. 

The maximum distance between transmitter and receiver is 350 mm. The transmitter on the probe can be rotated making it possible to perform a sequence of scans on a perticular weld and on neighbouring welds without moving the microphone collar. 

R distance between the transducer and the measurement point h length of the stimulation impulse. 

This area is limited by the echo of the entrance window in front, the noise of the electronic equipment and the accuracy of the digitizer or the distance between the container walls. 

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