Degrees of hybridization

If DNA from two different species are mixed, denatured, and allowed to cool slowly so that reannealing can occur, artificial hybrid duplexes may form, provided the DNA from one species is similar in nucleotide sequence to the DNA of the other. The degree of hybridization is a measure of the sequence similarity or relatedness between the two species. Depending on the conditions of the experiment, about 25% of the DNA from a human forms hybrids with mouse DNA, implying that some of the nucleotide sequences (genes) in humans are very similar to those in mice. Mixed RNA DNA hybrids can be created in vitro if single-stranded DNA is allowed to anneal with RNA copies of itself, such as those formed when genes are transcribed into mRNA molecules. 

Spike-ins are usually RNA transcripts used to calibrate measurements in a DNA microarray experiment. Each spike-in is designed to hybridize with a specific control probe on the target array. Manufacturers of commercially available microarrays typically offer companion RNA spike-ins kits . Known amounts of RNA spike-ins are mixed with the experiment sample during preparation. Subsequently the measured degree of hybridization between the spike-ins and the control probes is used to normalize the hybridization measurements of the sample RNA. 

It seems to be realistic to relate catalytic activity to the most stable [111] plane of fee metals. Bond (135) describes the electron structure of the this plane. So-called 2g electron orbitals point toward those interstices where metal atoms in the subsequent overlayer would be accommodated. These orbitals have metallic character. So-called orbitals point toward the next nearest neighbor. These are localized and able to form real covalent bonds. The degree of hybridization of these orbitals is imknown. Knor (136) assumes that only orbitals would stick out of the plane, but they are almost completely hybridized. He assumes that the /2g electrons are parts of the electron gas of the metal. The and sites are by no means equivalent. 

Localization versus itineracy and the degree of hybridization of 5 f states with orbitals of the actinide atom (especially 6 d) as well as with those of the ligand in compounds are central questions for the understanding of bonding in actinide solids. Photoelectron spectroscopy provides answers to these questions. In narrow band solids, like the actinides, the interpretation of results requires the use of band calculations in the itinerant picture, as well as models of final state emission in the atomie picture. 

Wscr is the width of the empty state, which is considered to be essentially determined by its degree of hybridization (or coupling) with other states of the metal. The two parameter picture, therefore, tries to separate the two main phenomena occuring in open-shell systems, and which have been discussed elsewhere in this book the localization character of the state (as determined by Coulomb and exchange interatomic correlation) and its hybridization with other states. 

It is possible that the correlation between A+ and the localization of the empty state is not as straightforward as indicated above. In fact, the BIS measurements of Th and display a shift of the empty 5 f states of about 2.7 eV towards Ep for U, i.e., the A+ is for U smaller than for Th. Due to this decrease for A+, Wscr/A+ has become probably larger for U even if Ws has become slightly smaller due to a lesser degree of hybridization of slightly more localized 5f states. 

Denatured single-stranded DNAs from two species can form a hybrid duplex, the degree of hybridization depending on the extent of sequence similarity. Hybridization is the basis for important techniques used to study and isolate specific genes and RNAs. 

A set of empirical equations representing the single-bond radius of a transition element as a function of atomic number and degree of hybridization of the bond orbitals has been formulated.28 These... 

Hybrids of electric and combustion processes could also be used. Currently, hybrid electric vehicle technology combines the combustion of petroleum products (gasoline or diesel), over a wide range of degrees of hybridization, with electric motors for propulsion. Hybrids could be created for any of the other fuels. Hybrids of fuel cells and batteries are under consideration today. 

Carbon materials liave particular characteristics due to differences in chemical bond formation. Allotropic forms of carbon drat luive been discovered can be categorized into five types from file standpoint of the type of hybridization of the valence orbitals (1) sp -hybridization (2) sp -hybridization (3) sp-hybrid-ization (4) mixed hybridization (sp + sp ) and (5) a valance state characterized by a fractional degree of hybridization (sp , where 1 diamond-like carbon, and fullcrcnes correspond to groups (1), (3), (4), and (5), respectively. 

The degree of hybridization is a useful parameter characterizing parallel hybrid vehicles. The value of this parameter is defined as the total power of the electric motor divided by the sum of the total power of electric motor and IC engine, according to the following equation ... 

A high value of the degree of hybridization means that the hybrid vehicle has a small IC engine that operates at its maximum efficiency for most of its operation time. 

---