Criticisms and refutations

He is ready, in the face of criticism and refutation, to exchange or modify his theory in favor of a better one. 

The decisive argument against big-bang cosmology is the fact that it is not a relativistic cosmology, as claimed. Ironically, many opponents of the theory, notably Halton Arp (1998), fail to appreciate this criticism and in order to refute the big bang, reject the theory of general relativity. 

The evaluation of human risk reaction towards technology raises the question of defensible risks which can be accepted in the course of utilization. For some time this has been the subject of intensive discussion on the part of those active in the humanities, theology, and the engineering sciences, Defensible is intended to mean that developments, conditions, and decisions can be justified by those responsible vis a vis society in such a way that refutation of criticism and predominant agreement can be expected. 

Tammann has, by a large amount of experimental evidence, apparently refuted the hypothesis of a critical point of fusion— against which of course there is no a priori objection. In some cases (e.g., with ice) new crystalline modifications appear when the temperature and pressure are modified, and in all cases the pair of relations L = 0, Ar = 0 (cf. 89) were never simultaneously satisfied. 

Popper s theory has been criticized by Thomas Kuhn (1962, 1969), who asserts that the development of science proceeds in revolutions hypotheses and theories are not refuted and replaced by new ones instead the scientific community will accept a new, more convincing, or better presented hypothesis without the old one having been disproved. 

Solid lithium aluminium hydride can be solublized in non-polar organic solvents with benzyltriethylammonium chloride. Initially, the catalytic effect of the lithium cation in the reduction of carbonyl compounds was emphasized [l-3], but this has since been refuted. A more recent evaluation of the use of quaternary ammonium aluminium hydrides shows that the purity of the lithium aluminium hydride and the dryness of the solvent are critical, but it has also been noted that trace amounts of water in the solid liquid system are beneficial to the reaction [4]. The quaternary ammonium aluminium hydrides have greater hydrolytic stability than the lithium salt the tetramethylammonium aluminium hydride is hydrolysed slowly in dilute aqueous acid and more lipophilic ammonium salts are more stable [4, 5]. 

In 1975, the Life Sciences Research Office of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (Carr et al. 1975), upon an extensive review of the available evidence, concluded that it was doubtful whether XO in homogenized cow s milk was a causal or risk factor for heart disease. More recently, Clifford et al (1983) and Deeth (1983), in critical reviews of the homogenized cow s milk XO hypothesis, have arrived at a similar, if not more definitive, conclusion. As stated by Clifford et al. (1983), experimental evidence has failed to substantiate, and in many cases has refuted, the hypothesis that homogenized bovine milk xanthine oxidase intake or plasmalogen depletion are causal factors in the development of atherosclerosis. And, according to Deeth (1983), there appears to be no unequivocal evidence that the absorbed enzyme has any pathological effects that may contribute to development of atherosclerotic heart disease. ... 

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