Cost-identification

Cost identification often involves the development of a probability or decision tree of the therapeutic pathway that describes all relevant downstream events related to use of that therapy and its comparator(s). Once the relevant resources are identified and measured (e.g. number of physician visits, treatment of side effects, number and duration of hospital visits, etc.), local costs/prices can be applied to those resources to determine the overall cost of that intervention. The scope of the resources (and costs) included in an analysis is determined by the perspective (or intended audience) of the study. 

In considering economic analysis of medical care, there are three dimensions of analysis (represented by the three axes of the cube in Fig. 1) with which readers should become familiar. Along the X axis are three types of economic analysis - cost-identification, cost-effectiveness, and cost-benefit. 

An even less complex approach than cost-benefit or cost-effectiveness analysis would be simply to enumerate the costs involved in medical care and to ignore the outcomes that result from that care. This approach is known as cost-identification analysis. By performing cost-identification analysis, the researcher can determine alternative ways of providing a service. The analysis might be expressed in terms of the cost per unit of service provided. For example, a cost-identification study might measure the cost of a course of antibiotic treatment, but it would not calculate the clinical outcomes (cost-effectiveness... 

In summary, economic analysis of medical technology or medical care evaluates a medical service by comparing its monetary cost with its monetary benefit (cost-benefit), by measuring its monetary cost in relation to its outcomes (cost-effectiveness), or simply by tabulating the costs involved (cost-identification). Direct costs are generated as services are provided. In addition, productivity costs should be considered, especially in determining the benefit of a service that decreases morbidity or mortality. Finally, the perspective of the study determines the costs and benefits that will be quantified in the analysis, and sensitivity analyses test the effects of changes in variable specifications for estimated measures on the results of the study. 

Valuation of costs Identification of Valuation of Type of study in both alternatives consequences consequences... 

Listing of special markings or codes used by the registered establishment for cost identification or storage (if any)... 

Flexible organic transistors have been attractive for driving electronic devices such as paper-like displays, low-cost identification tags, and flexible photovoltaic cells. These devices may not be fabricated using conventional inorganic materials. In order to commercialize such devices, it is necessary... 

The most reliable (time-consuming and costly) identification method is to use infrared spectroscopy measurements to determine the material. The Rapra Collection of Infrared Spectra of Rubbers, Plastics, and Thermoplastic Elastomers can be used to compare the spectrum of a test material to reference spectra. The transmission spectra in this reference are obtained either from cast or molded thin film or in the case of cross-linked materials by pyrolysis of the material in a Pyrex tube. 

The quadripolar spectrometers whose resolution is limited to about 2000 are of simpler design than the magnetic sectors and are less costly. They are often used in conjunction with gas chromatography (see section 3.3) for purposes of identification. 

Historically, drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity ADMET) studies in animal models were performed after the identification of a lead compound. In order to avoid costs, nowadays pharmaceutical companies evaluate the ADMET profiles of potential leads at an earlier stage of the development... 

Development of a peptide vaccine is derived from the identification of the immunodominant epitope of an antigen (141). A polypeptide based on the amino acid sequence of the epitope can then be synthesized. Preparation of a peptide vaccine has the advantage of allowing for large-scale production of a vaccine at relatively low cost. It also allows for selecting the appropriate T- or B-ceU epitopes to be included in the vaccine, which may be advantageous in some cases. Several vaccines based on peptide approaches, such as SPf66 (95) for malaria and an HIV-1 peptide (142) have been in clinical trials. No peptide vaccines are Hcensed as yet. 

The woolen processor is relatively close to the consumer market. The essence of its success is the identification of lucrative markets in apparel or home finishings and the appropriate choice of the most cost-competitive blend fiber input. Technical experience, skillful design, and effective marketing are mandatory. 

An important part of planning an experimental program is the identification of the variables that affect the response and deciding what to do about them. The decision as to how to deal with each of the candidate variables can be made jointiy by the experimenter and the statistician. However, identifying the variables is the experimenter s responsibiUty. Controllable or independent variables in a statistical experiment can be dealt with in four different ways. The assignment of a particular variable to a category often involves a trade-off among information, cost, and time. 

Technical and Business Issues. In general, the successflil appHcation of any technology is dependent on both technical and business issues. For knowledge-based systems, six critical issues are problem identification, user acceptance, measurement of impact, appropriateness, feasibHity, and cost. 

The cost of performing the hazard identification step depends on the size of the problem and the specific techniques used. Techniques such as brainstorming, what-if analyses, or checklists tend to be less expensive than other more structured methods. Hazard and operability (HAZOP) analyses and failure modes and effects analyses (FMEAs) involve many people and tend to be more expensive. But, you can have greater confidence in the exhaustiveness of HAZOP and FMEA techniques—their rigorous approach helps ensure completeness. However, no technique can guarantee that all hazards or potential accidents have been identified. Figure 8 is an example of the hazards identified in a HAZOP study. Hazard identification can require from 10% to 25% of the total effort in a QRA study. 

HPLC systems coupled to mass spectrometers (LC-MS) are extremely important methods for the separation and identification of substances. If not for the costs involved in LC-MS, these systems would be more commonly found in research laboratories. 

For a given desired product, there are typically numerous reaction alternatives that should be identified and screened. The identification of these reactions is not a straightforward task. The problem is further compounded when the search is limited to environmentally benign cost-effective chemistry. In this context, the following questions should be answered ... 

The Severe Accident Policy Statement formulates systematic safety examinations for detection of accident vulnerabilities and implementation of cost-effective changes. The NRC issued Generic Letter 88-20 to implement this plan through IPEs. While the primary goal was the identification of plant vulnerabilities, no definition of vulnerability was provided. Only 4 operators of BWRs identified vulnerabilities and only 16 operators of PWRs did so. Over 500 plant improvements were identified, but few vulnerabilities were. 

Identification or a more cost-beneficial alternative to internally planned modification or activity. 

Requirement for a process for identification of cost elements or price as appropriate in developing quotations... 

As indicaled above, the PHA may ser c as a precursor lo further hazard analyses. It is included in lliis chapter because it can pro ide a cost effective, early-on plant method for hazard identification. As its title indicates, the PHA is really intended for use only in the preliminary phase of plant development for cases where past e.spcriencc provides little or no insight into any potential safety problems, e g., a new plant with a new process. 

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