Conversion factors angles

Figure 10 Global map of aerosol UV-flux attenuation factor rj= 1-F,er/Fd(air = l-exp -(k/b)AI, estimated from the aerosol index map. The conversion factor k/b= 0.25, was obtained from the clear sky radiative transfer calculations, assuming single layer (dust or smoke) between 2and 4 km and solar zenith angle 30°. The map shows that aersosol absorption can produce very large reduction in UV flux ( 50%) in certain parts of the world (from plate 2 of Krotkov et al. 1998).

The bond distances are In A, bond angles in degrees, first moments in u A, and the second moments in u AJ. The rotational constants for these calculations are from Tobiason and Schwendeman.10 The conversion factor used is SOS 376 MHz U A1. The different methods of calculation are described in the text. 

X rays of wavelength 0.154 nm strike an aluminum crystal the rays are reflected at an angle of 19.3°. Assuming that n = 1, calculate the spacing between the planes of aluminum atoms (in pm) that is responsible for this angle of reflection. The conversion factor is obtained from 1 nm = 1000 pm. 

The variables of state for thermomechanical analysis are deformation (strain) and stress. The SI units of deformation are based on length (meter, m), volume, (cubic meter, m ) and angle (radian, rad, or degree) as listed in Fig. 4.143 (see also Fig. 2.3). Stress is defined as force per unit area with the SI unit newton m", also called by its own name, pascal. Pa. Since these units are not quite as frequently used, some conversion factors are listed below. The stress is always defined as force per area. 

Here, 0i is the angle of the incoming laser beam with respect to the surface normal. For a Nd YAG laser pulse (1064 nm) of duration t = 10 ps, intensity = 10 W/cm and area f = 1 mm (corresponding to a pulse energy of 100 pj), which irradiates a monolayer of molecules with a surface susceptibility of = 10 esu, one calculates from Eq. (6.14) about 10 photons per laser pulse. In the CGS system the susceptibility is defined via The conversion factor between the two systems... 

The next two steps in the procedure of Leonard and Ashman are the conversion of the diagonal elements from atomic units into force field units and calculation of scaling factors for bond lengths and angles. The calculated force constants had to be scaled down by approximately 25% and 70% to yield force constants comparable in numerical size with those included in MM2. Neither force constants nor scaling factors can be incorporated directly into a different force field. A modification of the described procedure that meets the requirements of CVFF was developed. Fragments with known force field parameters were chosen. After a full geometry optimization (HF/6-31G ) second derivatives and vibrational frequencies were calculated. The force... 

Currently used nonlinear optical crystals are potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KDP) and barium borate (BBO). Compared to KDP, the advantages of BBO are its transparency in the UV and its larger quantum efficiency of up-conversion by a factor of 4—6. For a given position of the crystal, only a narrow band of the fluorescence spectrum is up-converted. Therefore, if the full fluorescence spectrum is of interest, the crystal must be rotated at a series of angles. An example of experimental set-up is presented in Figure 11.2. The fwhm of the response is 210 fs. 

Under the typical summertime conditions, the thinner cloud shows an increase of 65% in the actinic flux above the cloud whereas the thicker cloud shows an increase of almost a factor of three, the maximum theoretically possible. This is due to scattering of diffuse light from the top of the cloud, as well as from the ground. As expected, below the thicker cloud, the total actinic flux is reduced, in this calculation, to 19% of the clear-sky value. However, for the thinner cloud of optical density 8, the actinic flux below the cloud is actually calculated to be greater than for the cloudless case. This occurs in the case of a small solar zenith angle and direct (rather than diffuse) incident light because the direct incident light is diffused as it traverses the cloud as discussed earlier for the case of the actinic flux above a Lambertian surface, conversion of a direct to diffuse source leads to an enhancement in the actinic flux. 

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