Coastal topography

The coastal topography is controlled by the geological structure of the Crimea. Capricious features such as abrasive remnants and cliffs are formed depending on the rock strength. 

Their concepts and the results of the author s observations allow one to outline the general pattern of the structure of the coastal topography and the relief of the floor of the Black Sea basin. 

The outer zone of the shelf is occupied by an accumulative plain with relic features of the coastal topography such as bars. These coastal bars were probably formed at regressive stages, when the Black Sea level was located at marks of 80-100 m. 

Numerical models have been developed for calculating the probable maximum seiche in the form of the amplitude of oscillation as a function of time at any point within a bay of arbitrary shape. These models usually require as input a specification of the overall geometry (bathymetry and coastal topography) and of the forcing wave system. They also require as input the time dependence of the excitation (tsunami wave, surge wave, wind wave etc.) at the open boundary or source location. The amplitude time history of the seiches for the location of the plant should then be calculated. Hydraulic model studies and/or field results should be used to validate the calculation model selected. 

IG waves are found to be responsible for many phenomena in the coastal zone, including formation of rip currents, wave setup, crescentic bars, beach cusps and other regular forms of coastal topographies, as well as transport of sediment materials. Being of high-frequency relative to meteorological waves, IG waves can induce seiches in comparatively small-scale semi-closed basins, such as ports and harbors, which have natural periods of a few minutes and which may pose a serious threat for large amplitude wave responses. 

Sediments of Tertiary and Quaternary age, including volcanic ash and aeolian materials, make up the parent material of the soils. In the more arid parts of the Andean System (the coastal plain of Peru and Chile, and the Altiplano of Bolivia) the topography is level. The Altiplano is a very large closed basin with numerous salt flats. In northwestern Argentina, the planar topography is broken by mountains composed of Precambrian rocks and Quaternary sediments. 

The topography rises towards the east from the coastal area in the west. Half of the study sites are situated in the esker formations and the other half in the basal till areas. The fine-rich tills are mainly composed of quartz, feldspars, amphiboles, chlorites and micas. The sand components are composed of mainly quartz and feldspars and poorly reflect the underlying bedrock (Raisanen etal. 1992). 

The eastern and southern coasts are mountainous. The coastal ridges of the folded structures of the Caucasus and Anatolia extend parallel to the coastline, forming a longitudinal type of mountainous topography. At places, the slopes of the mountains descend directly into the sea in the form of steep escarpments. In the southeastern part of the Black Sea, within the Kolkhida lowland, mostly accumulative coasts are developed. 

Cape Kara Dag is especially picturesque when seen from the sea. This volcanic remnant creates exclusive shore topography and a particular coastal landscape. Between capes Kara Dag and Kiik Atlama is located one of the most beautiful bights of the Crimea, Koktebel Bight. 

The Crimean shelf extends from Cape Khersones in the west to Cape Meganom in the east. It is widest off Cape Sarych (35-40 km) and narrowest off Cape Ayu Dag (5 km) [1,2]. This region is subjected to intensive wave action because it is exposed to all the southerly winds. The boundary of the underwater coastal slope is located at depths of 30-40 m. The near-shore zone is the area of alongshore sediment transport and smoothing of the bottom topography. Underwater and dried abrasive remnants are common the largest of them are confined to the capes composed of strong volcanic rocks [7,8]. 

The inner zone represents an abrasive-accumulative coastal slope down to depths of 25-30 m, with a characteristic ridge-stepwise topography and... 

The climate of the Black Sea and its coastal regions is defined by three principal factors, which depend on the latitude and topography of the area—the irradiance processes, the atmosphere circulation (both large-scale and local), and the character of the underlying surface. With regard to the type of the air masses that dominate throughout the year, the northern and the southern parts of the Black Sea may be referred to as the temperate and subtropical climatic zones, respectively [1]. 

Atmospheric precipitation. Atmospheric precipitation over the Black Sea is mostly related to the cyclonic activity. The convective process plays a noticeable role only it near-shore band and on the coasts. An additional influence is provided by the topography of the coastal zone. Throughout the year, the precipitation amount grows from the northwest (380-420 mm/ year) to the southeast, where the Caucasian ridges approach the coastline and are oriented across the principal moisture-bearing airflows (up to 1500-2500 mm/year) (Fig. 8). The greatest number of days with precipita-... 

Figur 33 1 Physical and biological upwelling response simulated by the Wroblewski (1977) 2-dimensional coastal upwelling model (A) The circulation in the transverse plane normal to the coast, the bottom topography, and the wind stress. The maximum u and w velocities in the field are —2.9 cm s and 1.4 x 10 cm s , respectively. (B) The daily gross primary production of the water column. (C) The distribution of phytoplankton. Contour intervals are 1 jimol N 1. Redrawn with permission from Wroblewski (1977).

Yagi is located on the northern coast of the Oshima Peninsula in southeastern Hokkaido. The site is located on a broad terrace that rises steeply 40 m above a narrow coastal strip. It is backed by a series of low, wooded mountains about 100 m in elevation and is circumscribed by two small rivers. Much of the terrain is very rugged. Most of the peninsula is andesitic highland, and its topography and geology are heavily influenced by local volcanic activity. The Oshima peninsula has two active volcanoes, Komagatake and Essan both are within 30 km of the site. 

At scales smaller than the synoptic scale, topography and differences in the surface cover (e.g., forest, agricultural fields, open water, or urbanized land) influence local winds, precipitation, and temperature. One common example of a local effect due to surface cover is the sea breeze, which occurs because water bodies warm and cool more slowly than the land does. During the day in coastal areas, air over the land warms and rises more rapidly and is replaced by cooler air originating from over the water. The reverse may happen at night, as the land cools to a temperature lower than that of the water body,... 

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