Capital investment efficiency

Natural gas is by far the preferred source of hydrogen. It has been cheap, and its use is more energy efficient than that of other hydrocarbons. The reforming process that is used to produce hydrogen from natural gas is highly developed, environmental controls are simple, and the capital investment is lower than that for any other method. Comparisons of the total energy consumption (fuel and synthesis gas), based on advanced technologies, have been discussed elsewhere (102). 

A variation of the n on regen erabi e absorption is the spray dry process. Time slurry is sprayed through an atomizing nozzle into a tower where it countercurtendy contacts the flue gas. The sulfur dioxide is absorbed and water in the slurry evaporated as calcium sulfite-sulfate collects as a powder at the bottom of the tower. The process requires less capital investment, but is less efficient than regular scmbbing operations. 

Developments. Electrolytic refining requires a large capital investment, and labor costs per kilogram of copper produced are high. Most refineries have traditionally operated at current densities of about 240 A/m. Thus, a tank house area of approximately 40 m is required per ton of copper produced daily. The use of higher current densities reduces capital requirements but may impair deposition efficiency and product quaUty. 

These methods have become increasingly popular. While they are similar to the preceding methods, labor ana materials costs are considered separately. Hence it is possible to allow for variations in efficiency and labor costs in different locahties or countries. H. C. Bauman Fundamentals of Cost Engineering in the Chemical Indus-tiy. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1964, p. 295) divides most of the components of Table 9-51 into material and labor components, quoting the data as ranges and medians of the percentage of the total fixed-capital investment. In Table 9-54, Bauman s data have been converted to factors of the delivered-equipment cost for a grass-roots installation. 

The capital investment required for gasification-based power systems is 1400 to 1600 /kW (1994 US dollars) and is projected to become less than 1200 /kW in the year 2000 because of the higher efficiency associated with gas-turbine combined-cycles currently being designed by turbine vendors. 

The cost of equipment determines the capital investment for a process operation. However, there is no direct relationship to profits. That is, more expensive equipment may mean better quality, more durability and, hence, longer service and maintenance factors. These characteristics can produce higher operating efficiencies, fewer consumption coefficients and operational expenses and, thus, fewer net production costs. The net cost of production characterizes the perfection rate of the total technological process and reflects the influences of design indices. Therefore, it is possible to compare different pieces of equipment when they are used in the manufacture of these same products. 

Not all decisions are made on the basis of economics alone. Consumers choose capital investments on the basis of efficiency, aesthetics and perceived benefits. An important environmental benefit of hybrid cars is the reduction in emissions. This is of particular relevance to an environmentally conscious consumer, and may shift the choice even though the benefit to the consumer is difficult to measure m dollars. 

The increased availability of energy fueled the Industrial Revolution. The United States became the world s largest oil producer, and the new fossil fuels were abundant and modestly priced. A technology s energy efficiency was not a key part of capital investment decisions. Energy-efficient technology as a priority ranked well behind improved performance. 

Even when the time comes to make a purchasing decision, an energy-efficient motor purchase is not a certainty. Sometimes an energy-efficient motor will be the economically efficient choice at other times, not. The capital investment decision is based on the cost in relation to performance, efficiency and reliability. Moreover, the decision depends on the application and the amount of time the motor is in operation. It can be the major component of a product (drill or mixer), or a minor component (computer disk drive) it can be the major component cost of a product (fan), or it can be a minor component cost (stereo tape deck) it can run almost constantly (fan, pump, and machinery), or only a few minutes a day (vacuums and power tools). For example, contractors purchase circular saws almost solely based on performance and reliability. Time is money, and since the saw is operating only a few minutes a day and the contractor is often not responsible for the electricity costs to run the motor, energy efficiency is not a consideration performance and reliability are what matter most. On the other hand, an industrial user, who runs huge electric motors twenty-four hours a day to work pumps, machinery, and ventilation equipment, is very concerned tvitli energy efficiency as well as performance and reliability. 

See also Batteries Capital Investment Decisions Consumption Economically Efficient Energy Choices Electricity Electric Power, Generation of Faraday, Michael Fuel Cells Fuel Cell Vehicles Magnetism and Magnets Oersted, Hans Christian Tesla, Nikola. 

See also Appliances Behavior Capital Investment Decisions Demand-Side Management Efficiency of Energy Use, Economic Concerns and Efficiency of Energy Use, Labeling of Environmental... 

See also Auditing of Energy Use Capital Investment Decisions Economically Efficient Energy Choices Energy Economics Industiy and Business, Productivity and Energy Efficiency in. 

In spite of its limitations, Gas Recycle technology remains a viable option in certain circumstances where its selection may be favored by plant scale or capacity. Other keys to the decision are as mentioned earlier energy consumption, capital investment, separation efficiency and catalyst vitality. 

After the development of larger and more efficient vacuum pumps, more user-friendly LC/MS interfaces of thermospray,4 5 and atmosphere pressure ionization,6 7 LC/MS earned its place in bio-analytical laboratories. The resulting device was a powerful instrument that required significantly more capital investment than HPLC/UV, GC, or GC/MS. 

The esterification by-product, water, is removed via a process column in a continuous steady-state mode of operation. The bottom product of the column, being mainly EG, flows back into the esterification reactor. The condensed top product consists mainly of water with small traces of EG. In cases where a reverse-osmosis unit is connected to the distillate flow line, the residual EG can be separated very efficiently from the water [124], The combination of a process column with reverse osmosis saves energy cost and capital investment. The total organic carbon (TOC) value of the permeate is sufficiently low to allow its discharge into a river or the sea without any environmental impact. 

Several alternate routes to MMA eliminate ammonium bisulfate byproduct—really a coproduct since its 1.5 tons for every 10 tons of MMA produced. They also do not involve HCN, always a safety problem in the plants and sometimes an unreliable market. Although these routes are more efficient and economical, American producers have stuck to the acetone cyanohydrin route. The plants are fully amortized and by staying with the old technology, producers can avoid the large capital investments associated with a new plant. 

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