Balance appetite

Sawchenko, P.E. 1998. Toward a new neurobiology of energy balance, appetite, and obesity The anatomists weigh in. J. Comp. Neurol. 402, 435-441. 

Agriculture. Most forages provide insufficient sodium for animal feeding and may lack adequate chloride. Thus salt supplementation is a critical part of a nutritionally balanced diet for animals. In addition, because animals have a definite appetite for salt, it can be used as a deflvery mechanism to ensure adequate intake of less palatable nutrients and as a feed limiter. Salt is an excellent carrier for trace minerals. Salt, either in loose form or as compressed blocks, can be mixed with feed or fed free-choice to improve animal health and productivity (see Feeds and feed additives). 

IM BALANCED NUTRITION. When a narcotic is prescribed for a prolonged time, anorexia (loss of appetite) may occur. Those receiving a narcotic for the relief of pain caused by terminal cancer often have severe anorexia from the disease and the narcotic. The nurse assesses food intake after each meal. When anorexia is prolonged, tiie nurse weighs the patient weekly or as... 

Reduction in dietary protein intake has been shown to slow the progression of kidney disease.8 However, protein restriction must be balanced with the risk of malnutrition in patients with CKD. Patients with a GFR less than 25 mL/minute/ 1.73 m2 received the most benefit from protein restriction 8 therefore, patients with a GFR above this level should not restrict protein intake. The NKF recommends that patients who have a GFR less than 25 mL/minute/1.73 m2 who are not receiving dialysis, however, should restrict protein intake to 0.6 g/kg per day. If patients are not able to maintain adequate dietary energy intake, protein intake maybe increased up to 0.75 g/kg per day.15 Malnutrition is common in patients with ESRD for various reasons, including decreased appetite, hypercatabolism, and nutrient losses through dialysis. For this reason, patients receiving dialysis should maintain protein intake of 1.2 g/kg per day to 1.3 g/kg per day. 

A more recent finding and term now used for a protein deficiency syndrome is PCM-plus, or infantile obesity. This is a condition that occurs among the more affluent populations where an infant is bottlefed, where hygiene is adequate, and where funds are adequate. Overfeeding of an improperly balanced formula can cause the condition. The condition does not occur with breast feeding because the volume of intake is regulated by the infant s appetite and thiist,... 

Excessive, chronic drinking promotes undereating because it acts as an appetite suppressant and throws a diet out of balance. 

The area of the brain enclosing the third ventricle is the diencephalon. This area consists of several important structures, including the thalamus and hypothalamus. The thalamus contains distinct nuclei that are crucial in the integration of certain types of sensations and their relay to other areas of the brain (such as the somatosensory cortex). The hypothalamus is involved in the control of diverse body functions including temperature control, appetite, water balance, and certain emotional reactions. The hypothalamus is also... 

Sodium, potassium and chloride are the primary dietary ions that influence the electrolytic balance and acid-base status, and the proper dietary balance of sodium, potassium and chloride is necessary for growth, bone development, eggshell quality and AA utilization. Potassium is the third most abundant mineral in the body after calcium and phosphorus, and is the most abundant mineral in muscle tissue. It is involved in electrolyte balance and neuromuscular function. The content of potassium in poultry diets is usually adequate. Chloride is present in gastric juice and chlorine is part of the HC1 molecule which assists in the breakdown of feed in the proventriculus. Sodium is essential for nerve membrane stimulation and ionic transport across cell membranes. Signs of sodium, potassium or chloride deficiency include reduced appetite, poor growth, dehydration and increased mortality. 

Obesity is a growing health problem in developed nations of the world. Approximately 33% of the population in the United States and 15% to 20% in Europe suffer from obesity.103 Human obesity has been linked to genes and other factors relevant to energy balance.104 The control of appetite and the mechanism of obesity are under investigation. The Ob-gene and its protein product, leptin, have been identified and appear to regulate food intake. 

Salt and water balance are closely related. Water can remain in the ECF only if accompanied by sodium ions, which are the major cations in the ECF and form 90% of the total cation content. If water is added to the plasma without an appropriate amount of sodium ions to maintain normal osmotic pressure, the water will leave the ECF and move into the body cells. Although thirst is known to be a powerful stimulus to drink and replace the lost water, the corresponding stimulus for salt intake or salt appetite is poorly understood and is probably of minor importance in human subjects. 

The study presented in Table III demonstrates that aerobic exercise alters energy balance and reduces body fat. The mechanism for this response was addressed by Mayer (65,66). He reported that exercise influenced energy balance by increasing caloric expenditure and by reducing appetite. Other studies have also reported that aerobic exercise produced appetite suppression, particularly in male rats (59,60). These investigators suggested that the effect was related to the intensity and duration of the exercise program. The food intake data for the study described in Table III are presented in Table IV and appear to support this conclusion. After only... 

Adverse effects include nausea, dizziness, disturbance of balance, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhoea and loss of appetite. More rarely, hallucinations, seizures and psychoses occur. Mefloquine should be avoided in patients taking (i-adrenoceptor and calcium channel antagonists for it causes sinus bradycardia quinine can potentiate these and other... 

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a potent appetite stimulant expressed by neurones of the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC) that project to important appetite-regulating nuclei, including the paraventricular nucleus (PVN). It also inhibits thermogenesis. Repeated administration rapidly induces obesity. The ARC NPY neurones act homeostatically to correct negative energy balance. They are stimulated by starvation, probably mediated by falls in circulating leptin and insulin (which both inhibit these neurones),... 

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