Ambiguities and anomalies

But in the preceding paragraph no restriction has been placed on the identity of solvent component 2, so the conclusion must apply to any cosolvent 2 combined with the common solvent 1, which is water. This means that all mixed solvent systems in this study as described should yield the same value of gA. But this is not observed. Indeed, the variation in gA can be extreme, in a chemical sense see Table 5.5.2. This constitutes a logical difficulty. 

There is another anomaly to be considered. In nearly all of the nonelectrolyte solubility data that have been subjected to analysis according to eq. [5.5.23] the solute solubility increases as X2, the organic cosolvent concentration, increases, and gA is positive, the physically reasonable result. But in the sucrose-water-ethanol system, the sucrose solubility decreases as Xj increases, and gA is negative. There appears to be no physically reasonable picture of a negative gA value. 

A further discrepancy was noted in 5.5.3.2, where we saw that some of the solvation constants evaluated from surface tension data did not agree closely with the corresponding numbers found in solubility studies. 

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At the time of writing, the experimental status of the anomaly in 9e/9t is ambiguous. It had been thought that the anomaly had been observed in several fluids, ° but subsequent experiments have raised a possibility that the detection reported earlier might have been only apparent. (The newer experiments also appear to put reliable upper bounds on the anomaly for He, Ne, and SF. )... 

Here we use the classic HAZOP questions (see Rausand (2005)), as only the axis content anomalies now remain. Anomalies in content mean that false or ambiguous information is displayed. Ambiguous information can or cannot be interpreted correctly. Content is therefore divided into the two words information and interpretation (see Table 1). 

Other indications are rarer. Imaging of urethral malformation or trauma remains based on the voiding part of VCU. Patients with cloacal anomalies, ambiguous genitalia, or imperforate anus can be explored. On the other hand, the role of VCU in investigating pelvic or bladder tumors has decreased since the advent of cystoscopy and MRI. 

There are important difficulties. The relevance of past experience - whether the current product is somehow an anomaly in the population of the past products considered - is never certain. This is just the underlying difficulty of all statistically-based prediction, and we need not discuss it for this specific case. But here, the past experience itself is ambiguous in argument 1 above, we cannot know with certainty that such past products were fault-free, but at most that they were scrutinised in many ways, operated for a long time without failures or problems that would cast any doubts on their correctness, and so on. As for argument 2, it assumes that in past experience we reached certainty about the number of faults in a product, and again such absolute certainty is impossible. 

Gadolinium anomalies have occasionally been conceptualized as a particular example of the tetrad effect (Masuda and Ikeuchi 1979, Masuda et al. 1987), wherein patterns in lanthanide stability constants are developed in response to enhanced stability of lanthanide 4f shells which are quarter, half and three quarter filled. In the recent analysis by McLennan (1994), the existence of a tetrad effect in natural systems was termed ambiguous. The stability constant analysis of Byrne and Li (1995) provided no prominent... 

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