Accounting concepts

Accounting Concepts and Conventions Accounting is based on the following concepts (1) money measurement, (2) business entity, (3) going concern, (4) cost, and (5) matching. 

Familiarity with basic accounting concepts and preparation of financial reports is essential knowledge for every pharmacist. The financial success of any organization depends on proper management of its funds. Those who understand how organizations finance operations, generate revenue, and allocate financial resources will have a easier task understanding many of the factors that affect their success. 

Therefore, a basic understanding of accounting concepts is essential for the operation of all pharmaceutical organizations, from neighborhood pharmacies to chain pharmacies and international pharmaceutical corporations. Accounting skills and knowledge are not only assets for pharmacy management, but also contribute to the overall success of pharmaceutical business ventures. 

After analysis of accounting papers it can be noticed that one of the cost accounting concepts— product Life Cycle Costing (LCC) is particularly applicable in cost management (Sierpinska Niedbala 2003, Sobczyk 1997). The basic of LCC is to establish future costs, based on the adopted model. Polish norm VN-EN 60300-3-3 defines LCC as the total cost incurred during the life cycle of the product. ... 

The concept of biradicals and biradicaloids was often used in attempts to account for the mechanism of photochemical reactions [2,20,129-131]. A biradical (or diradical) may be defined as [132] an even-electron molecule that has one bond less than the number permitted by the standard rules of valence. 

We describe here a new structure representation which extends the valence bond concept by new bond types that account for multi-haptic and electron-deficient bonds. This representation is called Representation Architecture for Molecular Structures by Electron Systems (RAMSES) it tries to incorporate ideas from Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory [8T]. 

Basically, Newtonian mechanics worked well for problems involving terrestrial and even celestial bodies, providing rational and quantifiable relationships between mass, velocity, acceleration, and force. However, in the realm of optics and electricity, numerous observations seemed to defy Newtonian laws. Phenomena such as diffraction and interference could only be explained if light had both particle and wave properties. Indeed, particles such as electrons and x-rays appeared to have both discrete energy states and momentum, properties similar to those of light. None of the classical, or Newtonian, laws could account for such behavior, and such inadequacies led scientists to search for new concepts in the consideration of the nature of reahty. 

The concepts behind the analysis are not difficult. The piping system is simply a stmcture composed of numerous straight and curved sections of pipe. Although, for straight pipe, elementary beam theory is sufficient for the solution of the problem, it is not adequate for curved pipe. However, by the iatroduction of a flexibiUty factor, to account for iacreased flexibiUty of curved pipe over straight pipe, and a stress intensification factor, /, to account for... 

Natural mbber was also used extensively in its oil-extended form in winter tires in the 1970s (57). Use of oil-extended natural mbber treads, found to have excellent traction on ice and snow, superseded studded synthetic mbber treads when studs were banned in certain countries and states owing to the damage they cause to partially cleared roads. This concept has been extended into aH-season tires, which account for over 75% of original equipment and replacement tires in the United States. It has been shown (58) that part replacement of styrene—butadiene mbber (SBR) in the formulation of aH-season tire tread compounds with oil-extended natural mbber increases ice and snow traction, reduces rolling resistance, and has no effect on normal wet grip. Also, there is only a minor trade-off in wear performance, because below a tire surface temperature of approximately 32°C, the wear of natural mbber is superior to SBR, whereas above this temperature the reverse is tme (59). Thus, wear of an aH-season tire ultimately depends on the surface temperature of the tread over its annual cycle of temperatures. 

The Smith predictor is a model-based control strategy that involves a more complicated block diagram than that for a conventional feedback controller, although a PID controller is still central to the control strategy (see Fig. 8-37). The key concept is based on better coordination of the timing of manipulated variable action. The loop configuration takes into account the facd that the current controlled variable measurement is not a result of the current manipulated variable action, but the value taken 0 time units earlier. Time-delay compensation can yield excellent performance however, if the process model parameters change (especially the time delay), the Smith predictor performance will deteriorate and is not recommended unless other precautions are taken. 

Concept 2. Business entity means that accounts are kept for the company qmte independently of the people who may own the company. For example, if an individual puts an additional 10,000 into a one-person business, the accounts show that the business is 10,000 richer. They do not show that the individual s personal wealth has been depleted by 10,000. 

Concept 3. Going concern means that the accounting is based on the premise that the business will continue indefinitely. It is most unlikely that the values of the assets shown in the balance sheet are what the assets would realize if sold. No attempt is made in normal accounting to measure the value of the business to a potential buyer. 

Concept 5. Matching means that the revenue in a given accounting period should correspond to the expenses for that accounting period. 

Experience in using the Z concept has demonstrated that the calculated Z factor should be modified by an efficiency factor to account for some of the aforementioned effects which are absent in the theoiy and, as such, this factor depends on the type of centrifuge. It is nearly 100 percent for simple spin-tube bottle centrifuge, 80 percent for tubular centrifuge, and less than 55 percent for di centrifuges. The... 

In the concepts developed above, we have used the kinematic approximation, which is valid for weak diffraction intensities arising from imperfect crystals. For perfect crystals (available thanks to the semiconductor industry), the diffraction intensities are large, and this approximation becomes inadequate. Thus, the dynamical theory must be used. In perfect crystals the incident X rays undergo multiple reflections from atomic planes and the dynamical theory accounts for the interference between these reflections. The attenuation in the crystal is no longer given by absorption (e.g., p) but is determined by the way in which the multiple reflections interfere. When the diffraction conditions are satisfied, the diffracted intensity ft-om perfect crystals is essentially the same as the incident intensity. The diffraction peak widths depend on 26 m and Fjjj and are extremely small (less than... 

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