A subtypes

The opioid peptides vary in their binding affinities for the multiple opioid receptor types. Leu- and Met-enkephalin have a higher affinity for 5-receptors than for the other opioid receptor types (68), whereas the dynorphin peptides have a higher affinity for K-sites (69). P-Endorphin binds with equal affinity to both p- and 5-receptors, but binds with lower affinity to K-sites (70). The existence of a P-endorphin-selective receptor, the S-receptor, has been postulated whether this site is actually a separate P-endorphin-selective receptor or is a subtype of a classical opioid receptor is a matter of controversy (71,72). The existence of opioid receptor subtypes in general is quite controversial although there is some evidence for subtypes of p- (73), 5-(74), and K-receptors (72,75), confirmation of which may be obtained by future molecular cloning studies. 

Kainate receptors are a subtype of ionotropic glutamate receptors that are permeable to Na+, K+ and Ca2+ ions. 

Receptor binding studies have shown that H-LSD labels 5-HT2 receptors in neuronal tissue (Peroutka 1987). LSD has also been shown to bind with high affinity to a subtype of the 5-HTj receptor (5-HTjq), a site that also displays a high affinity for 5-HT (Glennon et al. 1986 Peroutka 1987). 

Type I IFNs form a superfamily of innate cytokines that comprise IFN-a (alpha), with 13 human subtypes, IFN-p (beta), IFN-co (omega), IFN-x (tau), IFN-k (kappa), IFN-e (epsilon), IFN-A, (lambda), and IFN- (zeta) (Pestka et al. 2004). Only IFN-a, IFN-p, IFN-cd, IFN-k, and IFN-e are expressed in humans. All IFN-a subtypes are secreted by leukocytes, whereas IFN-p is also produced by fibroblasts. IFN-x is exclusively expressed in ruminants at a specific stage of pregnancy (Martal et al. 1998), whereas IFN-k is expressed by human keratinocytes (LaFleur et al. 2001). 

The starting point for much of the work described in this article is the idea that quinone methides (QMs) are the electrophilic species that are generated from ortho-hydro-xybenzyl halides during the relatively selective modification of tryptophan residues in proteins. Therefore, a series of suicide substrates (a subtype of mechanism-based inhibitors) that produce quinone or quinonimine methides (QIMs) have been designed to inhibit enzymes. The concept of mechanism-based inhibitors was very appealing and has been widely applied. The present review will be focused on the inhibition of mammalian serine proteases and bacterial serine (3-lactamases by suicide inhibitors. These very different classes of enzymes have however an analogous step in their catalytic mechanism, the formation of an acyl-enzyme intermediate. Several studies have examined the possible use of quinone or quinonimine methides as the latent... 

Wellferon was the tradename given to one of the first such approved products. Produced by large-scale mammalian (lymphoblastoid) cell cultures, the crude preparation undergoes extensive chromatographic purification, including two immunoaffinity steps. The final product contains nine IFN-a subtypes. 

Because a type spec is just a description of behavior, an object can be a member of many types. In other words, it can play several roles. (In fact, an object is a member of every type whose specification it conforms to even if the type specification was written after the object was created.) And one type can be a subset, or subtype, of another even if they were defined separately. To say that all sheep are animals is the same as saying Sheep is a subtype of Animal. You expect of Sheep everything expected of Animals in general but there is more to say about Sheep. Some objects that are Animals—that is, they conform to the behavior specification for that type— may exhibit the additional properties of Sheep. 

Putting more into a specification, raising the expectations, reduces the set of objects that satisfy it. It s often useful to define one type specification by extending another, adding new actions, or extending the specifications of existing ones subject to certain restrictions, this will result in the definition of a subtype. 

A subtype extends the specification of its supertype. It inherits all properties (attributes and invariants) of the supertype and adds its own specifics. Because all supertype properties still apply to it and because its members must conform to all properties, every member of a subtype is also a member of its supertype a subtype s members are a subset of its supertype members. 

A subtype is not a subclass. Specifically, a subtype in a model does not imply that an OOP class that implements the subtype should subclass from another OOP class that implements the supertype. Subclassing is one particular mechanism for inheriting implementation with certain forms of overriding of implementation however, with subtyping there is no overriding of specifications, only extension. 

The refinement symbol is a version of the subtype symbol.3 It states that the more detailed model achieves everything expected from the more abstract one. But whereas a subtype symbol says to the reader, The subtype is defined a priori as an extension of the supertype, having all its properties and more, the refinement symbol says, The refinement, a self-contained model even without the abstraction, is believed to specify everything defined for the abstraction and more. ... 

An operation is a subtype of an action operations are actions consisting of an invocation from a sender to a receiver, followed by an activity on the part of the receiver and possibly ending with a return signal to the sender. Operations are a one-sided view of the sender-receiver interaction. 

In contrast, when you define a subtype, you are defining a subset of objects when you combine multiple supertypes, you are intersecting the corresponding sets. The rule for intersecting action specs is quite different from the rules for join. You can write a different expression—T1 T2—which represents the type of objects that conform both to T1 and also to T2—that is, the intersection of the two sets. Type intersection or... 

In the provisions section, you can put any model to which the substituted types must already conform.6 Thus, you can require that one substituted type be a subtype of another or that they have some relationship (see Section 9.2.1, Framework Applications Are Not Subtypes) or satisfy some predicate. The designer who applies the template must check, perhaps with help from a tool, that all the other parts of his or her model imply the properties laid down as provisions, and this should be documented much as a refinement is documented. 

Moreover, it would be wrong to contradict our definition of equality in a subtype. Triangle is the set of all triangles, colored or not, and it should be the place where you put statements that are true about all of them. Equality on colored triangles could further discriminate on color. But the supertype has stated that as long as the sides are the same, two triangles are equal. 

In contrast to equality, the name of the operation doesn t need to be changed across sub-types for copy. If you know only that you ve been given a Shape, you know that getting a copy will give you the same visible result you have no expectations about anything more, because you have no information on type-specific operations. However, a subtype of shape would have to copy in accordance with its specialized definition of the equality operator, so colored shapes would have to copy the color as well. 

The information carried by each port has a type. Each port can be coupled only to another port that has a compatible type. Compatibility is defined separately for each port category for Event and Property couples, the sender s output type must be a subtype of the receiver s input. 

An input property can be driven by an output properly, and each output can generally drive any number of inputs. A connection must match types The output type must be the same as, or a subtype of, the input type. The input and output can have different labels. 

Invariants and postconditions focused on type A use only some subset of the attributes of B, an attribute (or association) of A (see Figure 14.5) put the unused attributes in a subtype of B. (This reduces spurious dependency.)... 

In addition, patients with body dysmorphic disorder experience a preoccupation with an imagined defect in appearance that leads to repetitive checking behaviors to assess their appearance. The symptoms of body dysmorphic disorder, essentially equivalent to the obsessions and compulsions of OCD, have led some to propose that the former syndrome is not a distinct disorder but a subtype of the latter. Again, a key distinguishing factor is that OCD will typically have been associated with some other nonsomatic obsession during the course of the illness. 

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