Whey properties

Prediction of Physical and Chemical Properties (Chapter X, Section 1) in Handbook of Chemoinformatics - From Data to Knowledge, J. Gasteiger (Ed.), Whey-VCH, Weinheim, 2003. 

Protein-Based Substitutes. Several plant and animal-based proteins have been used in processed meat products to increase yields, reduce reformulation costs, enhance specific functional properties, and decrease fat content. Examples of these protein additives are wheat flour, wheat gluten, soy flour, soy protein concentrate, soy protein isolate, textured soy protein, cottonseed flour, oat flour, com germ meal, nonfat dry milk, caseinates, whey proteins, surimi, blood plasma, and egg proteins. Most of these protein ingredients can be included in cooked sausages with a maximum level allowed up to 3.5% of the formulation, except soy protein isolate and caseinates are restricted to 2% (44). 

Property Spray process DBM RoUer process DBM Dry whey, extra... 

J. D. Perry, Viscoelastic Properties of Polymers, 2nd ed., John Whey Sons, Inc., New York, 1970. 

Sheu, T. Y. Rosenberg, M. (1993). Microencapsulating Properties of Whey Proteins. 2. 

Sodium carboxymethylcellulose (commonly known as CMC) was introduced in 1945 by Josephson and Dahle 10) for use in ice cream. It is cold water-soluble, will not react with acid, and has excellent water-binding properties. When properly processed, it is easily dispersible and quickly soluble in the mix. These properties make it well suited for high temperature-short time (HTST) mix. When used alone, it has a tendency to cause separation or wheying off in the mix. Irish moss extract is used with CMC to eliminate this condition. From 0.15 to 0.25% CMC is most often used in ice cream mix. 

The consumption of dairy products plays a significant role in providing high-quality protein, vitamins, minerals, and other bioactive compounds to the American diet. Dairy products are consumed fresh in the United States in the form of fluid milk, cheese, yogurt, butter, and ice cream. Dried and condensed products such as nonfat dried milk, whey, whey protein concentrates, and isolates are also produced which are used as ingredients to boost the nutritional and functional properties of a host of other food... 

There is a continuing interest to improve and extend the fimctional properties range of dairy proteins to provide both health benefits and their characteristic physical behaviors under different temperature, moisture, and pH conditions so that they may be included in foods that ordinarily do not contain them. One such research area is the extrusion texturization of whey proteins, which have resulted in dairy proteins with new characteristics imparted by a controlled texturization process, depending on the application desired (Hale et al., 2002 Manoi and Rizvi, 2008 Onwulata, 2009 Onwulata et al., 1998). Protein texturization is a two-step process that involves, first, the unfolding of the globular structure (denaturation) and, second, the alignments of the partially unfolded structures in the direction of mass flow in the extruder. The surface characteristics are imparted at the extruder die as the molten mass exits (Onwulata et al., 2003a). 

Denaturation and aggregation of whey proteins are affected by the pH of extrusion. When extruding WPI, alkaline conditions increase denaturation and solubility, decrease pasting properties, and produce more pronounced microstructural changes (Onwulata et ah, 2006). Denaturation in the extruder causes whey proteins to form small primary aggregates that combine to form large clusters. The clusters are then aligned by shear to form fibrous structures. 

TABLE 5.4 Properties of whey protein isolate as function of extrusion temperature (Onwulata et ai, 2003a)... 

WPI, whey protein isolates. Properties of nonextmded WPI pH 6.8, protein 88.9%, insoluble (denatured) 28.0%, and digestibility 87.7%. Means with different letters within a column are significantly (p < 0.05) different. 

Kim, C. H. and Maga, J. A. (1987). Properties of extruded whey protein concentrate and cereal flour blends. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 20,311-318. 

Matthey, F. P. and Hanna, M. A. (1997). Physical and functional properties of twin-screw extruded whey protein concentrate-corn starch blends. LWT Food Sci. Technol. 30,359-366. 

Morr, C. V. and Ha, E. Y. (1993). Whey protein concentrates and isolates Processing and functional properties. Grit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 33, 431-476. 

Nalesnik, C., Onwulata, C., Tunick, M., Phillips, J., and Tomasula, P. (2007). The effects of drying on the properties of extruded whey protein concentrates and isolates. /. Food Eng. 80, 688-694. 

Onwulata, C. 1., Isobe, S., Tomasula, P. M., and Cooke, P. H. (2006). Properties of whey protein isolates extruded under acidic and alkaline conditions. /. Dairy Sci. 89, 71-81. 

Qi, P. X. and Onwulata, C. 1. (2011). Physical properties, molecular structures and protein quality of texturized whey protein isolate (WPl) Effect of extrusion moisture content. /. Dairy Sci. (Accepted for publication). doi 10.3168/jds.2010-3942. 

Queguiner, C., Dumay, E., Cavalier, C., and Cheftel, J. C. (1989). Reduction of Streptococcus thermophilus in a whey protein isolate by low moisture extrusion cooking without loss of functional properties. Int. ]. Food Sci. Technol. 24, 601-612. 

Walsh, M. K. and Wood, A. M. (2010). Properties of extrusion-expanded whey protein products containing fiber. Int. J. Food Prop. 13,702-712. 

Brindle LP and Krochta JM. 2008. Physical properties of whey protein-hydroxypropylmethylcellulose blend... 

Torreggiani, D., Fomi, E., Erba, M.L., and Longoni, F. 1995a. Functional properties of pepper osmodehydrated in hydrolysed cheese whey permeate with or without sorbitol. Food Res. Int. 28, 161-166. 

The efficiencies of protein (75-80%) and starch (88-93%) recoveries by the dry process were higher than the 73-79% recoveries by wet processing, and there were no losses of solids in the whey and wash water or need for effluent recovery. The starch fraction was similar to refined starch in most functional properties except for a low amylograph viscosity. 

Lactoferrin is the major whey protein present in breast milk (Teraguchi et ah, 1996) with many microbicidal properties (Leon-Sicairos et ah, 2006). The concentration of lactoferrin in milk has been reported as 1 g/liter in mature milk and 7 g/liter in colostrum (Houghton et ah, 1985). The concentration of lactoferrin in breast milk is controlled by the reproductive hormones prolactin and estrogen (Ward et ah, 2005). Lactoferrin has been demonstrated to resist digestion in the infant gut as it has been recovered intact from the stool of breast-fed infants (Bemt and Walker, 1999). Lactoferrin acts mainly in an iron-free state (apo-lactoferrin) and its microbicidal activity is reported to increase in proportion to its concentration in milk (Leon-Sicairos et ah, 2006). 

In vitro, the enzyme is able to catalyze crosslinking of whey proteins, soy proteins, wheat proteins, beef myosin, casein, and crude actomyosin (which is refined from mechanically deboned meat), improving functional properties such as the texture of food products [49-53], Bonds formed by transglutaminase exhibit a high resistance to proteolytic degradation [54],... 

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