Water utilization efficiency

As Table 1 illustrates, Switzerland exhibits an extremely high specific aimual production of electrical energy from hydro power - by far the largest compared to other countries within Europe. This reflects the high level of water utilization, efficient production facilities, and a high density of power stations more than 90% of suitable rivers and streams are harnessed in Switzerland for this purpose [13]. 

Water Utilization Efficiency Water will quite definitely be a decisive limiting factor in the worldwide expansion of agriculture (9,54,57,58). It is therefore important that water utilization efficiency be considered in the future screening and development of herbaceous land plants as energy resources. Three factors must be assessed from the onset (a) Utilization efficiency in photosynthetic processes (b) water extracting capability from the candidate species natural terrain and (c), the specibs capacity for water conservation by anatomical means. 

Furnaces and boilers sold today must by law have annual fuel utilization efficiency of at least 78 to 80 percent. Gas water heaters operating this way as space heaters are equivalent to the efficiency of pre-1992 furnaces and boilers which had space heating efficiencies typically in the mid-60 percent range. However, the combined efficiency for space and... 

Pimblott and Mozumder (1991) used Eq. (4.26) for both gaseous and liquid water, utilizing experimental information on ionization potentials, W values, ionization efficiencies, and the relevant cross sections. Their findings are briefly summarized as follows ... 

Hayashi, J.-I., Ikeda, J., Kusakabe, K., and Shigeharu, M., Decomposition rate of volatile organochlorines by ozone and utilization efficiency of ozone with ultraviolet radiation in a bubble-column contactor, Water Res., 27, 1091-1097, 1993. 

The transpiration of water to the atmosphere through biomass stomata is proportional to the vapor pressure difference between the atmosphere and the saturated vapor pressure inside the leaves. Transpiration is obviously affected by atmospheric temperature and humidity. The internal water is essential for biomass growth. The efficiency of utilizing this water (water-use efficiency, WUE) has been defined as the ratio of biomass accumulation to the water consumed, expressed as transpiration or total water input to the system. Analysis of the transpiration phenomenon and the possibilities for manipulation... 

The information discussed above is summarized in Table I. This includes the X-ray mean energy, the X-ray emission efficiency, the tenth value layer for attenuation in water, the optimum thickness of water for maximum X-ray power utilization efficiency and the DUR at... 

FIG. 4. Dose uniformity ratios (Dmco/Dmin) and X ray power utilization efficiencies vs water thickness for maximum X ray energies of 5.0 MeV, 7.5 MeV and 10 MeV. The lower doses at the ends of finite pallet loads have not been taken into account in these calculations. 

Another issue in coal gasification is thermal efficiency. The thermodynamics of the reactions written above indicate that the overall C CH4 conversion should be thermoneutral. However, in practice, the exothermic heat of the water-gas shift and methanation reactions is generated at a lower temperature than the carbon-steam reaction and therefore cannot be utilized efficiently. Recent catalytic gasification approaches are aimed at overcoming these thermal inefficiencies. 

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