Vertical temperature sounding

Aircraft can take vertical temperature soundings and can measure air pollutant and tracer concentrations and turbulence intensity. Airborne lidar can measure plume heights, and integrating nephelometers can determine particle size distributions. 

FIGURE 4-14 Vertical temperature, dew point, and ozone sounding for operation 14, Glendale, California, O ober 4,1973,1 01-1 25 p.m. Re wn from Edinger. ... 

Fig. 3-3. Balloon soundings of ozone (in units of partial pressure). Left Low latitude, Right High latitude. Vertical temperature profiles are included to indicate the tropopause levels. [Adapted from Hering and Borden (1967).]...

Supercooling has been observed in an extreme form in molten ibuprofen if the molten solid is allowed to cool from the melting point to room temperature without vibration in a smooth-lined container [48]. For instance, undisturbed rac-ibuprofen can exist as an oil phase for several hours to a few days. If disturbed, however, an exothermic recrystallization proceeds and bulk crystalline material rapidly grows vertically out of the oil phase so energetically that the system emits an audible cracking sound. 

Fig. 15. Magnetic susceptibility, sound-velocity change, and differential thermal analysisobtained corresponding to complete and incomplete thermal cycling at and around Nitinol transition. Three vertically shaded band indicate the corresponding Ms, Ms and As temperatures in Fig. 12. Arrow indicates the direction of temperature change.

VanKrevelen-Hoftijzer viscosity-temperature relationship, 539 Van t Hoff equation, 751 Velocities of sound waves, 390 Velocity gradient, 526 Vertical Burning Test, 854 Vicat softening temperature, 849 Vickers hardness test, 837 Viscoelasticity, 405... 

Circulation models are based on the equations of motion of the geophysical fluid dynamics and on the thermodynamics of seawater. The model area is divided into finite size grid cells. The state of the ocean is described by the velocity, temperature, and salinity in each grid cell, and its time evolution can be computed from the three-dimensional model equations. To reduce the computational demands, the model ocean is usually incompressible and the vertical acceleration is neglected, the latter assumption is known as hydrostatic approximation. This removes sound waves in the ocean from the model solution. In the horizontal equations, the Boussinesq approximation is applied and small density changes are ignored except in the horizontal pressure gradient terms. This implies that such models conserve... 

Meteorological sounding balloons (radiosondes) are used routinely to measure from networks of stations on all continents the vertical distribution of pressure, temperature, wind velocity, and to some extent also relative humidity. Radiosondes reach altitudes of about 30 km. Atmospheric conditions at greater heights have been explored by means of rocket sondes and, in recent years, also by infrared sounding techniques from satellites. 

FIGURE 5 Vertical profiles of potential temperature e, equivalent potential temperature 6q, and the equivalent potential temperature of a hypothetically saturated atmosphere with the same temperature at each level. The thin, solid vertical line is the equivalent potential temperature of a surface air parcel forced to rise. The parcel s LCL (determined from temperature and moisture information not explicitly available from the diagram) and LFC are noted. The hatched area indicates the region of positive buoyancy, that is, where the equivalent potential temperature of the parcel is greater then 0. [Taken from the mean hurricane season sounding for the West Indies area, Jordan, C. L. (1958). J. Meteorol. 15, 91-97.]... 

In estuaries, the vertical stratification as well as the in- and out-flows therefore become important. Fig. 5. We thus need to consider a vertically resolved model that takes horizontal advection into account. A useful approach is to introduce one- and one half dimensional models, that divides the water body into sub-basins, resolving the vertical dimension and considering geometrical and dynamic restrictions, such as sounds, sills and fronts in the parameterization of the horizontal exchange. The conservation of temperature for each sub-basin then reads ... 

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