Vertical resolution, precision

Locations of contamination must be precisely marked and mapped so they can be relocated easily. Efficiency in survey and remediation operations is best served through the division of labor, i.e., when the detection and location task is performed separately from access and recovery, which is itself separate from the neutralization or demilitarization of the recovered items. In practice, therefore, an optimal capability would be to quickly mark and later relocate a detection "hit" with an accuracy of a few tens of centimeters, both horizontally and vertically, in a large (thousands of acres) area of reasonably rough terrain. The requisite horizontal resolution might be obtainable with a differential Global Positioning System the vertical resolution is presently not reachable with most detection instruments. 

The true (i.e., nonaverage) subnanometer-resolution imaging by AFM typically requires vertical and lateral spatial resolutions of 10-50 pm and 100-500 pm, respectively. To achieve vertical resolution, the vertical position of the tip front atom should be controlled with a precision better than 50 pm. A cantilever is always vibrating because of the thermal energy determined by the temperature (T) of the environment. The root mean square (rms) amplitude of the cantilever thermal vibration ((zth is given by... 

More precisely, climate modeling consists in the simulation of large-scale atmospheric processes by applying the basic physical principles and the correct initial conditions in a consistent way (Smagorinsky, 1974). An important part of climate modeling is the consideration of the interaction of macro-processes with phenomena taking place on the micro-scale (radiative transfer, turbulence, and processes of cloud physics and air chemistry). In the equations, the horizontal scale of variations is at least 100 km, while the vertical scale lies between 10 m and 100 km. The volume of air taken into account is a measure of the resolution of the calculation. Phenomena of smaller scale can be included in the model by appropriate statistical methods. This procedure is termed the parameterization. 

An imaging high-pressure detector can be envisioned from an array of vertically cylindrical ionization chambers, with spatial resolution set by each tube diameter. It may further be possible to segment the collection anode, to derive an azimuthal co-ordinate within each detector and to use signal risetime to get a radial co-ordinate. The precision of such techniques, and the low-energy performance of such detectors is critically dependent upon the preamplifier noise. It may be possible to achieve around 50 electrons rms with modern (optical feedback, or no feedback) amplifiers resulting in an energy resolution of a few percent at 100 keV. 

In areas where detailed bathymetry is required, a precise multibeam echo soimder may be used. There are many considerations when evaluating such a system, such as the vertical accuracy, resolution, acoustic beamwidth of the transmit/receive beam, and the acoustic frequency of the transducer. Most hydrographic echo sounders are dual frequency, that is, they have a low-frequency pulse (typically aroimd 24 kHz) that can be transmitted at... 

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