Specialization of labor

Specialization of labor, the placement of individuals into categories based on job fxmctions, leads to increased productivity. This increased productivity is seen by (1) an improvement in a worker s ability to do a task, resulting from a worker s concentration on one or a few tasks (2) time saving due to minimized need for physical relocation or from adapting, or orienting, a worker to the new task and (3) concentration on one or a few tasks increasing the likelihood of discovering easier and better methods. 

Within pharmacy, there is often a specialization of labor. Specialization works not only with employees but departments as well. In pharmacy, this is seen on a large scale because there are pharmacists specializing in hospital pharmacy work and those specializing in community practice, with the subspecialization of independent vs. chain stores, and even long-term-care or managed-care pharmacy. Further, even within a given setting, pharmacists are divided based on their specialties. In hospitals, there are unit-dose phar-... 

Specialization of labor. Workers are organized according to specialty in work function to improve productivity. 

Manual assembly fines are used in high-production situations where the sequences to be performed cem be divided into small tasks and the tasks assigned to the workstations on the fine. One of the key adveuitages of using assembly fines is the resulting specialization of labor. Because each worker is given a limited set of tasks to perform repeatedly, the worker becomes a specialist in those tasks and is able to perform them more quickly and consistently. 

History teaches us that until the mid-nineteenth century, the production of goods was mainly in workshops that operated in the traditional way, i.e., with low productirai volumes, starting the manufacture of a new product when the previous was finished (one to one), and without further specialization of labor, meaning a craftsman normally made the product in full. This form of craftsmanship in some cases led to high-quality products, of which those existing today are considered works of art. 

CPM is an important scheduling aid, but from it alone a schedule cannot be devised. To schedule a project, after a CPM or PERT diagram has been constructed the planner must evaluate the work force and special equipment needed for each activity. Then he must devise a scheduling plan that will maintain a fairly even level of labor and assure the most efficient use of specialty items. 

Albert. R.E. (1983) The acceptability of using the cancer risk estimates associated with the radiation protection standard of 5 lems/year as the basis for setting protection standards for chemical carcinogens with special reference to vinyl chloride, Report to Ministry of Labor, Occupational Health and Safety Division, Ibronto, Ontetrio, Canada (Ministry of Labor, Occupational Health and Safety Division, Ibronto, Ontario, Canada). 

To appreciate fully the significance of individual metabolic pathways and their regulation, we must view these pathways in the context of the whole organism. An essential characteristic of multicellular organisms is cell differentiation and division of labor. The specialized... 

Specialization/division of labor. People should perform tasks specific to their skills. No one person should be expected to perform all the skills needed to run an organization. 

Division of labor divides work tasks into specific parts. This can be seen in pharmacy when there is a separation of pharmacists into those who only participate in dispensing functions and those who only participate in clinical functions. Even within clinical functions, pharmacists can specialize in a particular field (e.g.,... 

In using the hydrometer method for determining particle-size, special care should be taken to make due provision for temperature change. The amount of labor involved may be reduced by compiling tables of the constant term in Eq (4-15) and the term p/(p — p0) in Eq (4-16). Tables of p/(p — po) and p for water are given in the appendix. 

There are numerous other indexes presented in the literature which can be used for specialized purposes. For example, cost indexes for materials and labor for various types of industries are published monthly by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics in the Monthly Labor Review. These indexes can be useful for special kinds of estimates involving particular materials or unusual labor conditions. Another example of a cost index which is useful for world-wide comparison of cost charges with time is published periodically in Engineering Costs and... 

Most organizations today are based on the scientific management theory, yielding the bmeaucratic model. The bureaucracy is the typical organizational structure, which is founded on the principles of logic, order, and legitimate authority. The characteristics of a bureaucratic organization include a clear division of labor, job specialization, a hierarchy of authority implemented... 

Although in each type of C4 pathway there is an initial carboxylation catalyzed by PEP carboxylase, the plant s ability to produce a net increase in fixed carbon depends on subsequent release of CO2 and refixation by the RPP cycle. In this sense, the RPP cycle is still the fundamental carboxylating mechanism of these plants. It should be noted that C3 plants also contain a cytosolic PEP carboxylase which is capable of fixing CO2. However, C3 plants lack the biochemical and structural specialization as well as the division of labor between cell types that make possible the classical C4 type of photosynthesis. 

The analogy to the division of labor in modern capitalist production has implications roughly parallel to those of the military metaphor. Both, for example, require authoritarian methods and central control. Thus Lenin wrote of the party s need to distribute the thousand-and-one minute functions of their organizational work," complained of technical defects," and called for the unification of all these tiny fractions into one whole." As he concluded, specialization necessarily presupposes centralization, and in its turn imperatively calls for it." ... 

An extreme version of this visual codification can be seen in Ceaujmescu s Romania, where hundreds of villages were destroyed in order to make room for nonfunctioning towns with modern apartment flats (easier to control) and where the countryside was divided up into zones of strict agricultural specialization as if it were a single enterprise with its own division of labor. The regime termed the entire exercise systematization. Perhaps the best treatment is to be found in Katherine Verdery, What Was Socialism and What Comes Next (Princeton Princeton University Press, 1996), especially chap. 6, pp. 133-67. 

Yant WP (1944) Protecting workers against temporary and emergency exposures. In Protecting Plant Manpower Through the Control of Air Contaminants. Special Bulletin No. 14. Washington, DC US Department of Labor, Division of Labor Standards. 

A single pharmacist cannot perform all the fundamental activities on all patients every day. Rather, these critical care pharmacy activities will require varying levels of involvement from multiple pharmacists and trained technicians acting as a team, along with support from pharmacy and hospital administrators, and other personnel. The exact allocation of labor and the pharmacist-to-patient ratio will vary by institution and depend on the level of care, the acuity of patients, and the degree of specialization of the institution. 

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