Solar observations

Beckers, J.M., 1987, Adaptive Optics in Solar Observations, ed. F. Merkle, O. Engvold and R. Falomo, Lest Tech. Rep. 28, 55... 

Making high spectral resolution infrared solar observations from the ground (0.01-0.03 cm-1), even about constituents which are predominant in the stratosphere. 

Brault JW (1978) Proceeding of the Workshop on Future Solar Observations, Needs and Constraints, Florence... 

Rinsland, C. R, L. S. Chiou, E. Mahieu, R. Zander, C. D. Boone and P. Bernath (2008) Measurements of long-term changes in atmospheric OCS (carbonyl sulfide) from infrared solar observations. Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer 109,... 

Herschel W (1801) Observations tending to investigate the nature of the Sun, in order to find the causes or symptoms of its variable emission of light and heat with remarks on the use that may possibly be drawn from solar observations. Phil Trans R Soc Lond 91 265-318... 

M. (1992) Solar Observations Techniques and Interpretation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 164—168, Chapters. 

The astrochemistty of ions may be divided into topics of interstellar clouds, stellar atmospheres, planetary atmospheres and comets. There are many areas of astrophysics (stars, planetary nebulae, novae, supemovae) where highly ionized species are important, but beyond the scope of ion chemistry . (Still, molecules, including H2O, are observed in solar spectra [155] and a surprise in the study of Supernova 1987A was the identification of molecular species, CO, SiO and possibly ITf[156. 157]. ) In the early universe, after expansion had cooled matter to the point that molecules could fonn, the small fraction of positive and negative ions that remained was crucial to the fomiation of molecules, for example [156]... 

For some experiments, the solar neutrino flux and the rate of decay of the proton being extreme examples, tire count rate is so small that observation times of months or even years are required to yield rates of sufficiently small relative uncertainty to be significant. For high count rate experiments, the limitation is the speed with which the electronics can process and record the incoming infomiation. 

In 1817, Josef Fraunhofer (1787-1826) studied the spectrum of solar radiation, observing a continuous spectrum with numerous dark lines. Fraunhofer labeled the most prominent of the dark lines with letters. In 1859, Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887) showed that the D line in the solar spectrum was due to the absorption of solar radiation by sodium atoms. The wavelength of the sodium D line is 589 nm. What are the frequency and the wavenumber for this line ... 

Percentage of meteorites seen to fall. Chondrites. Over 90% of meteorites that are observed to fall out of the sky are classified as chondrites, samples that are distinguished from terrestrial rocks in many ways (3). One of the most fundamental is age. Like most meteorites, chondrites have formation ages close to 4.55 Gyr. Elemental composition is also a property that distinguishes chondrites from all other terrestrial and extraterrestrial samples. Chondrites basically have undifferentiated elemental compositions for most nonvolatile elements and match solar abundances except for moderately volatile elements. The most compositionaHy primitive chondrites are members of the type 1 carbonaceous (Cl) class. The analyses of the small number of existing samples of this rare class most closely match estimates of solar compositions (5) and in fact are primary source solar or cosmic abundances data for the elements that cannot be accurately determined by analysis of lines in the solar spectmm (Table 2). Table 2. Solar System Abundances of the Elements ... 

Weathering. Articles fabricated from FEP are unaffected by weather, and thek resistance to extreme heat, cold, and uv kradiation suits them for apphcations in radar and other electronic components. For example, after 15 years of solar exposure in Florida, the tensile strength (73) and light transmission (96%) of a 25-p.m thick film was unchanged and the film remained crystal clear. Elongation increased slightly for the first 5 to 7 years of outdoor exposure, probably as a result of stress relaxation. Beyond 10 years, a small decrease was observed. 

Tritium has also been observed in meteorites and material recovered from sateUites (see also Extraterrestrial materials). The tritium activity in meteorites can be reasonably well explained by the interaction of cosmic-ray particles and meteoritic material. The tritium contents of recovered sateUite materials have not in general agreed with predictions based on cosmic-ray exposure. Eor observations higher than those predicted (Discoverer XVII and sateUites), a theory of exposure to incident tritium flux in solar flares has been proposed. Eor observations lower than predicted (Sputnik 4), the suggested explanation is a diffusive loss of tritium during heating up on reentry. 

The effect of solar radiation must be considered in the outdoor part of a bus enclosure exposed to solar heat. This effect ma be observed for all LT and HT bus enclosures, as all are influenced equally by such radiations, particularly IPB enclosures, as discussed in Section. 3 1.4.4. 

The vertical temperature gradient (the lapse rate) is usually not monitored by routine meteorological observation, and it, too, must be approximated from estimates of solar insolation, solar angle, and differential heating due to uneven cloud cover. For purposes of diffusion analyses, the lapse rate is usually approximated by a constant. 

Pasquill defined six stabihty classes ranging from highly stable, low-turbulence Class F, to unstable, highly turbulent Class A, and he identified the surfece wind speed, intensity of solar radiation, and nighttime sky cover as being the prime factors controlling atmospheric stabihty. PasquiU then correlated observations of the behavior of plumes in terms of their dispersion with the... 

Use of solar panels or photovoltaics (PVs) is another popular way to generate solar electricity. The space program is perhaps the most recognized user of PVs and is responsible for most of the advancements in PVs. Many people are familiar with PVs through small applications such as calculators and perhaps solar water heaters, but early forays in PV experimentation were little more than noted side observations in non-PV experiments. 

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