Sodium excess

The impact of the excess sodium on the properties of tantalum powder obtained by direct reduction of K2TaF7 with sodium in the stainless steel bomb reactor was investigated by Yoon et al. [583]. It was shown that the yield and amount of fines strongly depend on the amount of excess sodium present. With the increase in sodium excess, the proportion of the fine powder fraction (approximately 325 mesh) decreases appreciably and the yield of the process... 

The high conductivity of (3-alumina is attributed to the correlated diffusion of pairs of ions in the conduction plane. The sodium excess is accommodated by the displacement of pairs of ions onto mO sites, and these can be considered to be associated defects consisting of pairs of Na+ ions on mO sites plus a V N l on a BR site (Fig. 6.12a and 6.12b). A series of atom jumps will then allow the defect to reorient and diffuse through the crystal (Fig. 6.12c and 6.12d). Calculations suggest that this diffusion mechanism has a low activation energy, which would lead to high Na+ ion conductivity. A similar, but not identical, mechanism can be described for (3"-alumina. 

Undoped p-alumina demonstrates a maximum conductivity and minimum activation energy when the sodium excess is around 20 to 30 mole%. Thereafter, further increase in the sodium content causes the conductivity to decrease. By contrast, P-alumina crystals doped with have a much higher conductivity than do undoped crystals. Explain these observations. 

Cation toxicity Penicillins are generally administered as the sodium or potassium salt. Toxicities may be caused by the large quantities of sodium or potassium that accompany the penicillin. Sodium excess may result in hypokalemia. This can be avoided by using the most potent antibiotic, which permits lower doses of drug and accompanying cations. 

Spironolactone (Aldactone) is structurally similar to aldosterone and competitively inhibits its action in the distal tubule (exchange of potassium for sodium) excessive secretion of aldosterone contributes to fluid retention in hepatic cirrhosis, nephrotic syndrome and congestive cardiac failure (see specific use in chapter 24), in which conditions as well as in primary h)q)ersecretion (Conn s syndrome) spironolactone is most useful. Spironolactone is also useful in the treatment of resistant hypertension, where increased aldosterone sensitivity is increasingly recognised as a contributory factor. 

Unlike nitrite, it is possible to determine conductometrically ammonium even in high sodium excess, since a high resolution between sodium, ammonium, and potassium is obtained with modern cation exchangers. Fig. 8-10 illustrates this with another municipal sewage sample, in which ammonium was detected after appropriate dilution. 

Eactors involved in precipitating decompensation have been evaluated prospectively in patients admitted to the hospital with heart faUure. ° These studies consistently show that noncompliance with drugs or diet is a common cause of heart failure exacerbation. Eor example, 43% of patients admitted with an acute decompensation of chronic heart failure were assessed as having dietary sodium excess, 34% had excess fluid intake (defined as >2.5 L/day), and about 24% had drug noncompliance that may have contributed to their decompensation (although not necessarily defined as the primary cause of decompensation). Use of inappropriate medications such as antiar-rhythmic agents or calcium channel blockers also was an important precipitant of exacerbations. 

Hypernatremia Dehydration, net relative sodium excess Increase fluid intake, decrease sodium intake... 

Specific symptoms of sodium excess are not known. High levels of sodium reduced calcium uptake in some cases (Leh 1973). Citrus and stone fruit species are particularly susceptible to salt damage. The leaf damage sometimes starts with chlorotic blotches, which are followed by necrotic lesions at the leaf tips and margins or between the veins. The leaves of lucerne growing on saline soils turn reddish, and the leafstalks collapse, possibly indicating calcium deficiency (Bergmann 1992). 

Sodium bicarbonate is a systemic antacid that has many side effects including sodium excess that causes hypernatremia and water retention. Sodium bicarbonate also causes metaboMc alkalosis related to the excess bicarbonate. Therefore, sodium bicarbonate is seldom used to treat peptic ulcers. 

At the second stage chemical interaction takes place between the products of the first stage of the reaction and excess sodium (excess sodium is a characteristic of water leak in the steam generator) ... 

Table 5-1 presents a summary of the body s response to sodium excess and fluid overload. 

Table 5-1 Body Response to Sodium Excess and Fluid Overload Hormonal...

Primary sodium excess. This occurs in primary aldosteronism (Conn s syndrome) when there is an inappropriate secretion of aldosterone. Hypokalaemia, possibly accompanied by hypernatraemia, are features of this condition. Secondary aldosteronism, when aldosterone is secreted in conditions where there is stimulation of the renin-angiotensin system by reduced renal blood flow (e.g. hypoproteinaemic states or cardiac failure), can also be considered as a cause of abnormal sodium metabolism. Hypernatraemia, however, is not a feature of this condition and the plasma sodium level may even be low. 

Body Fluid Compartments Regulation of Water and Electrolyte Balance Movement of Water and Electrolytes Factors Regulating Movement Imbalances of Water and Electrolytes Water Depletion Water Excess Sodium Depletion Sodium Excess Potassium Depletion Potassium Excess Chloride... 

Sodium Excess. Most of the sodium ingested is excessive, and for the most part it is excreted by the kidneys in combination with bicarbonate or phosphate. However, under some circumstances sodium accumulates in the extracellular fluid and causes edema since the retention of sodium is accompanied by water retention. Such conditions include (1) cardiac or renal failure, (2) adrenal tumors which secrete excessive cortical hormones, and (3) adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) or steroid hormone therapy. In these conditions, individuals benefit from sodium-restricted diets. 

Removal of the tosyl function is undertaken by dissolving the protected amino acid/peptide in liquid ammonia and slowly adding sodium. Excess sodium is destroyed at the end of the reaction by the addition of ammonium chloride, iodide, or acetic acid. 

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