Single frequency

At CSM Materialteknik AB the question has been raised whether the porosity estimation can be simplified further by utilizing attenuation measurements at a single frequency only. Empirical work show that for a given frequency, which is selcted based on the thickness of the inspected object, there is a correlation between the attenuation and the porosity contents. However, there has still not been any documented results proving that single frequency measurements are sufficient for porosity estimation. 

In this section we will discuss more conventional spectroscopies absorption, emission and resonance Raman scattering. These spectroscopies are generally measured under single frequency conditions, and therefore our... 

Figure Bl.2.7. Time domain and frequency domain representations of several interferograms. (a) Single frequency, (b) two frequencies, one of which is 1.2 times greater than the other, (c) same as (b), except the high frequency component has only half the amplitude and (d) Gaussian distribution of frequencies.

Many other pulsed NMR experiments are possible, and some are listed in the final sections. Most can be canied out using the standard equipment described above, but some require additions such as highly controllable, pulsed field gradients, shaped RF pulses for (for example) single-frequency irradiations, and the combined use of pulses at several different frequencies. 

Single-frequency decoupling is easy and rapidly carried out. However, it may be limited by the closeness of different multiplets. Also, it will not nonnally be possible to apply more than one frequency of decoupling irradiation at a time. Fortunately, these disadvantages do not apply to the equivalent multidimensional methods. 

The storage modulus rather than compliance is plotted. This is a trivial difference, but note that the modulus is measured at a single frequency, 1 Hz. 

Floor acceleration This is the time history of acceleration of a partictilar floor nr structure caused by a given ground acceleration (Figure 14.16). It may have an amplified narrow band spectrum due to structural filtration, where single frequency excitation and resonance may predominate, depending upon the dynamic characteristics of the structure. A floor response spectrum (FR.S). as shown in Figure 14.18, can be derived from this history. Consideration of GRS or FRS will depend upon the location of the object under test. 

Except in simple cases, it is very difficult to predict the infrared absorption spectrum of a polyatomic molecule, because each of the modes has its characteristic absorption frequency rather than just the single frequency of a diatomic molecule. However, certain groups, such as a benzene ring or a carbonyl group, have characteristic frequencies, and their presence can often be detected in a spectrum. Thus, an infrared spectrum can be used to identify the species present in a sample by looking for the characteristic absorption bands associated with various groups. An example and its analysis is shown in Fig. 3. 

In the powder diffraction technique, a monochromatic (single-frequency) beam of x-rays is directed at a powdered sample spread on a support, and the diffraction intensity is measured as the detector is moved to different angles (Fig. 1). The pattern obtained is characteristic of the material in the sample, and it can be identified by comparison with a database of patterns. In effect, powder x-ray diffraction takes a fingerprint of the sample. It can also be used to identify the size and shape of the unit cell by measuring the spacing of the lines in the diffraction pattern. The central equation for analyzing the results of a powder diffraction experiment is the Bragg equation... 

FIGURE 1 In the powder diffraction technique, a sample is spread on a flat plate and exposed to a beam of monochromatic (single-frequency) x-rays. The diffraction pattern (inset) is recorded by moving the detector to different angles. 

For a typical spot size of 1 arcsec the laser intensity is nominally 2 mW/cm, so the laser power must be < 2.4 W to avoid saturation for a single frequency... 

Lick Observatory. The success of the LLNL/AVLIS demonstration led to the deployment of a pulsed dye laser / AO system on the Lick Observatory 3-m telescope (Friedman et al., 1995). LGS system (Fig. 14). The dye cells are pumped by 4 70 W, frequency-doubled, flashlamp-pumped, solid-state Nd YAG lasers. Each laser dissipates 8 kW, which is removed by watercooling. The YAG lasers, oscillator, dye pumps and control system are located in a room in the Observatory basement to isolate heat production and vibrations from the telescope. A grazing incidence dye master oscillator (DMO) provides a single frequency 589.2 nm pulse, 100-150 ns in length at an 11 kHz repetition rate. The pulse width is a compromise between the requirements for Na excitation and the need for efficient conversion in the dye, for which shorter pulses are optimum. The laser utilizes a custom designed laser dye, R-2 perchlorate, that lasts for 1-2 years of use before replacement is required. 

The basic experimental arrangements for photocurrent measurements under periodic square and sinusoidal light perturbation are schematically depicted in Fig. 19. In the previous section, we have already discussed experimental results based on chopped light and lock-in detection. This approach is particularly useful for measurement at a single frequency, generally above 5 Hz. At lower frequencies the performance of lock-in amplifier and mechanical choppers diminishes considerably. For rather slow dynamics, DC photocurrent transients employing optical shutters are more advisable. On the other hand, for kinetic studies of the various reaction steps under illumination, intensity modulated photocurrent spectroscopy (IMPS) has proved to be a very powerful approach [132,133,148-156]. For IMPS, the applied potential is kept constant and the light intensity is sinusoid-... 

As both F and G are partitioned by the use of symmetry coordinates, the secular determinant is factored accordingly. The problem of calculating the vibrational frequencies is thus divided into two parts solution of a linear equation for the single frequency of species B2 and of a quadratic equation for the pair of frequencies of species Aj. 

In the study of 13C-NMR spectra of 8 and 6, the presence of the hydroxyl group at C-14 is also evident since a downfield shift of 43 ppm from 6 (<521.2) to 8 (<563.87) is observed. The previously ambiguous assignments of C-15, C-16, C-5, and C-20 are also clarified through irradiation of H-16, H-5, and H-20 with low-power single-frequency off-resonance decoupling (SFORD) experiments. 

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