Shadowing effects

Figure I represents a two-dimensional damage distribution of an impact in a 0/90° CFRP laminate of 3 mm thickness. Unlike in ultrasonic testing, which is usually the standard method for this problem, there is no shadowing effect on the successive layers by delamination echos. With the method of X-ray refraction the exact concentration of debonded fibers can be calculated for each position averaged over the wall thickness. Additionally the refraction allows the selection of the fiber orientation. The presented X-ray refraction topograph detects selectively debonded fibers of the 90° direction.

On large diameter pipes having a raised seam weld, difficulty is encountered in covering the weld shadow effectively. 

In VTE arrival of the individual molecules can be described as ballistic transport, thus the mfp is comparable with the crucible-substrate distance. Consequently the symmetry of the crucible, for example point source, multiple point source or linear source, and the texture of the organic materials loaded, is reflected in the thickness uniformity and layer coverage of the substrate. This explains the shadowing effects observed for structured substrates [12, 40, 44], As a result, coverage of the substrate by VTE is less uniform and may lead to pin-holes and is obviously not as perfect or quantitative as in OVPD. To reduce this disadvantage in VTE and to improve layer uniformity and coverage VTE uses, for example, substrate rotation to randomize the ballistic trajectories. 

The cryptocrystalline quartz has cells which are in different orientation in the particle and the shadow effect of light passing between cell boundaries causes the granular appearance. 

Gerardy JM, Ausloos M (1983) Absorption-spectrum of clusters of spheres from the general-solution of Maxwells equations.4. Proximity, bulk, surface, and shadow effects (in binary clusters). Phys Rev B 27 6446-6463... 

Fig. 2.6. Illustration of (a) the shadowing effect of atoms on the growth surface, and (b) the resulting chain-like growth morphology when the sticking coefficient is high.

Figure 22 Ni(001)c(2 x 2)-0. (a) Fourfold co-ordination non-reconstructed model, (b) Shadowing effects of O on Ni atoms along the (4l0) azimuth, (c) Scattered intensities for 1 keV incidence in (4T0) azimuth (Reproduced by permission from Surface Sci., 1976, 54, 519)...

Baddeley et al. [93] also investigated the effect of the adsorbate on the number of visible atoms by measuring the total number of visible Cu and Pd atoms as a function of Cl coverage. They concluded that any effect was negligible and could be discounted in the calculations. This is another advantage of the MEIS approach compared to LEIS. The shadow cone radius varies as so the shadowing effect of H(a), C(a) and 0(a) are all relatively weak and even the effect of Cl(a) can be neglected since it is very unlikely that Cl will sit in a site which is a continuation of the bulk bimetallic lattice. 

Because of the ready solubility of sodium nitrate, it has been argued that it exists to such an extent in the Atacama as it is drier than any of the other deserts in the world. Sub-tropical subsiding air, the upwelling of cold offshore waters, and the rain-shadow effect of the Andes, create this aridity. The most intense aridity occurs in northern Chile, which receives less than 10 mm of rainfall per annum. Indeed, some stations, such as Calama, receive on average less than 2 mm. The climate station at Quillagua (mean annual rainfall 0.05 mm) can lay claim to be the driest place on Earth (Middleton, 2001). 

The properties for the powdery (primary) and for the glassy (molten) deposit layer of the Cases B and C correspond to average data from literature as cited above. The actual calculations were carried out with an effective emissivity of the tube walls taking the shadow effect of the gap between adjacent tubes into account. 

Figure 1.3 Typical ETA cell geometries. The interfaces between the absorber and electron and hole transport layers are structured, usually in porous (Fig. 1.3a) or columnar (Fig. 1.3b) form. The interfaces between the transport layers and the contact layers are planar. If the substrate morphology is porous, both transport layers should be transparent to avoid shadowing effects. The contact layer on the light entry side must be transparent and the back contact should be reflective, to minimise optical losses outside the absorber layer. If the interfacial structuring is not very deep, it is possible to omit the hole transport layer, and deposit the back contact straight onto the ETA layer, which greatly simplifies device fabrication.

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