Semiochemistry

Albone E. (1984). Mammalian Semiochemistry. John Wiley Sons, Chichester, p. 360. Beauchamp G.K. and Bartoshuk L., eds (1997). Tasting and Smelling Taste and Smell, 2nd ed. Academic Press, New York, p. 256. 

Albone E. (1997). Mammalian semiochemistry chemical signaling between mammals. In Handbook of Biosensors and Electronic Noses (Kress-Rodgers E., ed.). CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp. 503-519. 

This chapter reviews the literature of semiochemical (mostly pheromone) identification in Hymenoptera published since 1990. For this review, we separate the order Hymenoptera into the following three, somewhat overlapping, classes to reflect their differences in biology and semiochemistry solitary, parasitic, and social (Table 1). Although there is considerable literature on the semiochemical activity of specific glandular extracts and the chemical composition of specific glands, only those chemicals with demonstrated pheromonal (or semiochemical) activity will be specifically discussed here. The earlier literature of pheromones in social hymenoptera has previously been reviewed [4-6]. There have been more recent reviews of pheromones in social hymenoptera [7-10], parasitic wasps [11,12], sawflies and seed wasps [13,14], and mating pheromones across Hymenoptera [15]. 

All of the suborder Symphyta and many species in the superfamily Aculeata in the suborder Apocrita are solitary insects. Although not requiring the complex semiochemistry of parasitic or social insects, solitary insects employ pheromones for mating, territorial marking, and host marking. Unfortunately, very few of these have been chemically identified. The pheromones of sawflies and seed wasps were extensively reviewed in 1999 [ 14]. The semiochemicals recently identified in solitary hymenoptera, discussed below, are summarized in Table 2 and Fig. 1. 

Albone, E.S. (1984) Mammalian Semiochemistry. Wiley-Interscience, New York. 

Andersson, M. (1994) Sexual Selection. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. Albone, E.S. (1984) Mammalian Semiochemistry. John Wiley Sons limited, New York Badyaev, A.V., Hill, G.E., Dunn, P.O. and Glenn, J.C. (2001) Plumage color as a composite trait Developmental and functional integration of sexual ornamentation. Amer. Nat. 158, 221-235... 

Acree TE, Soderlund DM (eds) (1985) Semiochemistry, flavours and pheromones, de Gruyter, Berlin... 

Abstract Progress that has been made in research on the chemical aspects of mammalian semiochemistry over the past decade is discussed on the basis of examples from the most topical problem areas. The chemical characterization of the volatile organic constituents of the urine, anal gland secretions and exocrine gland secretions of rodents, carnivores, proboscids, artiodactyls and primates, and their possible role in the semiochemical communication of these mammals are discussed, with particular emphasis on the advances made in the elaboration of the function of proteins as controlled release carrier materials for the semiochemicals of some of these animals. 

Techniques developed for the identification of insect semiochemicals and the determination of environmental contaminants have been used equally effectively in chemical work on mammals. Some of these methods will therefore be discussed only as far as their application is of particular significance in mammalian semiochemistry. Examples can be found in the literature of cases in which conclusions were drawn from results that were obtained by using inappropriate or, at least, doubtful analytical techniques. A few of the problem areas will be highlighted without giving the relevant literature references. 

GC-MS analysis has become standard practice in semiochemical research. There is, however, a real danger that information based exclusively on the results of computerized library searches without mass spectral and retention-time comparison with authentic synthetic material can be introduced into the literature. This could be problem especially in mammalian semiochemistry, because researchers often are faced with the problem of having to identify large numbers of compounds of which many may have very uninformative mass spectra. A critical reader of the original publication could still be aware of the unverified nature of some of the information, but this may not be pointed out in later references to the work. 

Reading the literature on mammalian semiochemistry over the past decade, a chemist is impressed by the enormous volume of biological information that has been gathered in well planned and meticulously executed studies of the modulation of the behavior of mammals by the chemicals released by con-specifics. One cannot, however, escape the impression that the chemical basis of many of these studies is lacking. Some of the problem areas were pointed out in the foregoing sections. To a certain extent there seems to be lack of appreciation of the diffusion rates of compounds with different volatilities and of the extent to which these differences can influence the outcome of behavioral tests. It is difficult to make an estimate of the persistence of semiochemicals that are released into the laboratory atmosphere or that are left on objects or surfaces in arenas in which tests are conducted. From what is known about the evaporation rate of some heavy compounds that are considered to be semiochemicals, it could take several weeks or even months for these compounds to be depleted to levels that cannot be detected by currently available instrumentation levels at which meaningful information could still be available to experimental animals. This then leaves the question unanswered as to when it would be safe to conduct behavioral experiments in a laboratory or arena that had been occupied by conspecifics. 

Albone, E. S. 1984). Mammalian Semiochemistry. The Investigation of Chemical Signals between Mammals. Chichester Wiley. 

Albone, E. S., Blazquez, N. B., Erench, J., Long, S. E., and Perry, G. C. (1986). Mammalian semiochemistry issues and futures, with some examples from a study of chemical signalling in cattle. In Chemical Signals in Vertebrates, vol. 4, ed. D. Duvall, D. Miiller-Schwarze, and R. M. Silverstein, pp. 27-36. New York Plenum. 

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