Protoceratium reticulatum

Numerous studies have been conducted with cultures of the marine dinoflagellate Protoceratium reticulatum not only to confirm the biogenetic origin of yessotoxin 17 and 45,46,47-trinoryessotoxin 20 <1997MI164, 1999MI147>, but also to isolate and assign the structure of known and new YTX analogues, such as 27 (a l-en-3-one isomer of... 

The persistence of YTX under light and dark conditions has been reported by Mitrovic et al. (2005). The report shows that YTX concentrations in a culture of Protoceratium reticulatum killed by cooling decreased to 10% of the initial concentration within 3 days, and depleted to near zero within a week in light treatment (14-hour light, 10-hour dark routine), while for the same sample in a dark enviromnent, the concentration decreased at a slower rate, and was reduced to approximately 10% of the initial concentration only after 18 days. 

Aasen, I, Samdal, I. A., Miles, C. O., Dahl, E., Briggs, L. R., and Aune, T. 2005. Yessotoxins in Norwegian blue mussels (Mytilus edulis)-. uptake from Protoceratium reticulatum, metabolism and depuration. Toxicon 45, 265-272. 

Ciminiello, E, Dell Aversano, C., Fattorusso, E., Forino, M., Magno, S., Guerrini, E, Pistocchi, R., and Boni, L. 2003. Complex yessotoxins profile in Protoceratium reticulatum from north-western Adriatic sea revealed by LC-MS analysis. Toxicon 42, 7-14. 

Polyhydroxylated amide analogs of yessotoxin from Protoceratium reticulatum. Toxicon 45, 61-71. 

Miles, C.O., Wilkins, A.L., Jensen, D.J., Cooney, J.M., Quilliam, M.A., Aasen, J., and MacKenzie, A.L. 2004a. Isolation of 41a-homoyessotoxin and the identification of 9-methyl-41a-homoyessotoxin and nor-ring A-yessotoxin from Protoceratium reticulatum. Chem Res Toxicol 17, 1414-1422. 

Samdal, I.A., Olseng, c.D., Sandvik, M., Miles, C.O., Briggs, L.R., Torgersen, T, and Jensen, D.J. 2006. Profile of yessotoxin analogues in a Norwegian strain of Protoceratium reticulatum. Pp. 242-247 in Proc. 5th, Inti. Conf Mollusc. Shell/. Safety, June 14—18, 2004, Galway, Ireland. Published hy Marine Institute. 

Satake, M., Eiki K., Oshima Y, Mitsuya T, Sekiguchi K., Koike K., and Ogata T. 2002. Yessotoxin production hy Protoceratium reticulatum in Japan and structures of its new analogues. In 10th Inti. Conf. Harm/Algae, St. Pete Beach, FL, USA. 

Satake, M., Ichimura, T, Sekiguchi, K., Yoshimatsu, S., and Oshima, Y. 1999. Confirmation of yessotoxin and 45,46,47-trino-ryessotoxin production hy Protoceratium reticulatum collected in Japan. JVof Toxins 7,147-150. 

Satake, M., MacKenzie, L., and Yasumoto, T, 1997a. Identification of Protoceratium reticulatum as the hiogenetic origin of yessotoxin. JVof Toxins 5, 164-167. 

Seamer C. 2001. The production of yessotoxins hy Protoceratium reticulatum. MSc dissertation. Wellington, New Zealand Victoria University. 

A different class of ladder-shaped polyethers, yessotoxins [e.g., yessotoxin 1 (15)], was isolated from toxic scallops again its producer is the dinoflagellate Protoceratium reticulatum (5). The mode of action seems to be different from that of brevetoxins and ciguatoxins. 

Figure 3. Alignments in the region of the conserved histidines of the three domains of the seven luciferases. PI, Pyrocystis lunula Pn, P. noctiluca Pf, P. fusiformis At, Alexandrium tamarense Aa. A. affine Pr Protoceratium reticulatum.

Yessotoxins (YTXs) were discovered in shellfish extracts together with toxins from the OA group in 1987 [46]. Since the YTXs contribute to the outcome of the MBA for DSP toxins, they were initially included in the DSP toxin complex. The main producer of YTXs is the dinoflagellate Protoceratium reticulatum. YTXs are detected in bivalve mollusks in many parts of the world, like Japan, New Zealand, Australia, Canada, Norway, Italy, and the United Kingdom [3]. Many analogues of YTX are described, and new ones are frequently reported. 

Protoceratium reticulatum Gonyaulax polyhedra Gonyolaux spinifera... 

The YTX are a group of bisulfate polyether toxins with a structure similar to brevetoxins (brevetoxin-type polyether), which were isolated from P. yessoensis [46], They are produced by the dinoflageUates Protoceratium reticulatum [47] and by the Lingulodinium polyedrum [48], Their presence in sheUtish was discovered due to their high acute toxicity in mice after i.p. injection of lipophilic extracts. They are much less potent via the oral route, and they do not induce diarrhea. There are no reports of human intoxications caused by YTXs [45],... 

M Satake, AL Mackencie, T Yasumoto. Identification of Protoceratium reticulatum as the biogenic origin of yessotoxin. Nat Toxins 5 164—167, 1997... 

Paz, B. et al.. Production and release of yessotoxins by the dinoflagellates Protoceratium reticulatum and Lingulodinium polyedrum in culture, Toxicon, 44, 251, 2004. 

Taylor, P.J.R., Harmful dinoflagellate species in space and time and the value of morphospecies, in Harmful Algae 2002, Steidinger, K.A. et al., Eds., Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO, St. Petersburg, Florida, USA, 2004, 555. CiminieUo, P. et al.. Complex yessotoxins profile in Protoceratium reticulatum from northwestern Adriatic Sea revealed by LC-MS analysis, Toxicon 42, 7, 2003. 

Paz, B. et al.. Study of the effect of temperature, irradiance and salinity on growth and yessotoxin production by the dinoflagellate Protoceratium reticulatum in culture by using a kinetic and factorial approach. Mar. Environ. Res., 62, 286, 2006. 

M. galloprovincialis that had been fed with a culture of Protoceratium reticulatum strain also revealed the presence of 12. 

INFLUENCE OF ENVIROMENTAL CONDITIONS ON YTXs PRODUCTION BY PROTOCERATIUM RETICULATUM... 

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