Production, Uses, Waste Products, Recycling, Distribution in the Environment

Production, Sources, Uses, Waste Products, Recycling, Distribution in the Environment 

These topics are discussed in detail in monographs and reviews (NAS 1975, IPCS 1991, Barceloux 1999, Mastromatteo 1986, Sunderman 1984, 2001a). Nickel constitutes less than 0.008% of the Earth s crust. The world s nickel production is obtained primarily from sulfide ores (e.g., pentlandite and nickeliferous pyrrhotite) and, to lesser extent, from oxides ores (e.g., laterite). Nickel sulfide ores, usually mined underground, are crushed and ground, concentrated by physical methods, converted to nickel subsulfide matte, and roasted to nickel oxide. The nickel oxide may be refined electrolytically to yield nickel cathodes or refined by the Mond process, which involves reduction with hydrogen, reaction with carbon monoxide to yield nickel carbonyl, and thermal decomposition to deposit pure nickel. Nickel oxide ores, usually mined in open pits, are smelted to produce ferronickel for use in stainless steel. 

Nickel is a constituent of many metal alloys (e.g., Ni-Cr-Fe alloys for cooking utensils and corrosion-resistant equipment Ni-Cu alloys for food processing, chemical, and petroleum equipment, and for coinage Ni-Al alloys for magnets and aircraft parts Ni-Cr alloys for heating elements, gas-turbines, and jet-engines). Alloys of nickel with zinc, manganese, cobalt, titanium, and molybdenum are used for special industrial purposes, and alloys of nickel with precious metals are used for jewelry. 

Nickel carbonyl, an intermediate in the Mond process for nickel refining, is also used for vapor-plating in the metallurgical and electronics industries and as a catalyst for synthesis of acrylic monomers in the plastics industry. Inadvertent formation of nickel carbonyl can occur in industrial processes that use nickel catalysts, such as coal gasification, petroleum refining, and hydrogenation of lipids. 

In the USA, approximately 10% of nickel that is consumed per year undergoes recycling. Nickel-bearing materials, mostly from the steel industry, are melted, refined, and used to prepare alloys similar in composition to those that enter the recycling process. 

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