Problem of Morale

Complications arose in storing and issuing chemical warfare materiel no less than in its procurement. These complications began to appear in the emergency period and continued to challenge the CWS throughout the period of the war. 

The contractors, no less than military and civilian workers, needed incentives to bring out their maximum potentialities. Problems associated with CWS procurement had particular implications for the contractors. In the matter of priorities, for example, a manufacturer who was faced with a low priority would naturally tend to assume that his product was not so important as others. He would, moreover, be put in the embarrassing 

Army-Navy Production Award Manual, pp. 4-4a. CWS 314.7 E Awards File. 

But there is good reason for believing that the E awards granted to the Erie Basin and Batavia Metals companies were the exception to the rule among CWS contractors. The standards for this award were very high—perhaps somewhat too high—and most of those who received it deserve the highest praise. There is little doubt that the other CWS contractors who got the E award richly deserved the honor. 

---

Activation of unemployment benefit recipients in the US is a concept well advanced in years. 10 Earliest discussions on the design of UI in the US focused on the issue of the insurability of unemployment (Blaustein 1993). Compensable joblessness was (and is) restricted to involuntary unavoidable unemployment (initial and continuing). The term moral hazard is insurance jargon for a situation where the insured can control the risk of exposure to the hazard insured against. UI rules were set to reduce the problem of moral hazard. UI programmes included features intended to prevent unemployment (Commons 1922). These features included definitions of involuntary unemployment, requirements for active job search, and benefit amounts and potential durations of benefits set below thresholds considered disincentives for actively seeking work. 

The problem of moral hazard is present when the insured can affect the chance of experiencing the unfavourable outcome insured against. 

Like the other analysts who have examined the effect of workers compensation coverage on lost workdays, Moore and Viscusi assiune that any increase in workers sick time reflects a ripoff of the system (the problem of moral hazard ). There is an opposite possibility, however perhaps some workers who should take time off fail to do so when there are insufficient benefits to make this possible. Since this would also lead to a positive correlation between benefits and lost workdays it is impossible to know a priori how to interpret the empirical evidence. 

It also should be noted that in the present international system self-determination is not conceived as the capacity of one worldwide political community to be shaped by the conditions of its internal life (and thus be self-determining, or in control of its future, in a non-relational sense). Such a community could exist. Its members would need to be able to maintain their group identity internally to avoid a split that would make some members outsiders, although they could not engage in self-determination as the exercise of freedom with respect to other similar communities. But if such a community did exist, the problem of moral entitlement to the... 

There are also more fundamental problems. The problems of highest concern for the authors relate to the existence of a utilitarian moral preferences for decision making and the function of the market. 

Simple, straightforward explanations of a patient s condition and the rationale for a specific course of action are generally well received. For those unable to benefit because of cognitive disruption, reassurance and expressions of empathy and concern are often therapeutic. A thorough, brief review of what is known about the patient s disorder should be communicated while dispelling common myths about his or her condition (e.g., the problem is related to a lack of moral strength). A patient s prognosis should be realistically and, to the extent possible, optimistically explained. Various treatment options should also be discussed, as noted in the section Informed C of Chapter 2. 

Between these two polarities we find most modem views on addiction. Few would adhere to the extreme positions and explain addiction solely as lack of morals or completely excuse the addict/ but the relative balance shifts. The U.S. policy of "war on drugs" draws some of its intensity from the moralistic approach, while the British system of health orientation is based on a view of addiction as primarily a health problem. Both systems accept some acts of addiction as punishable, however, and some as treatable. 

Around that same time, the growing problem of alcohol abuse began to be confronted by the pioneers of modern medicine. In the United States, Benjamin Rush published an Inquiry into the Effects of Ardent Spirits on the Human Body and Mind. He referred to the intemperate use of distilled spirits as a disease, not a moral failing. He also estimated that at least 4,000 people a year were dying due to alcohol abuse—this at a time when the nation s population was only about 6 million. 

R D staff also face problems in this contractor role, which are not insignificant. The main one is the uncertainty over the continuance of a contract and what will happen to them when a contract comes to an end. Reassurance and support from the R D Manager is essential for the morale, not only of the individual but also of the total group. There is in addition the problem of staff seeming to have two bosses during the term of the contract, something that also occurs more obviously in a matrix organisation, and this is the next topic to be considered. 

Collective action frames tend to be loose and relatively informal sets of ideas, rather than formal ideological systems, because they need to be flexible in order to adapt to changing situations (Tarrow 1992 190). Chemical Risk provided a broad range of concerns from which scientist-activists could draw selectively and elaborate in papers and public presentations before policy makers, their research peers, university administrators, and high school biology classes. Accordingly, one could frame the problem of environmental chemical mutagens with equal flair as an economic burden, a moral dilemma, or a natural disaster. 

Peter Stafford has delved into the literature on psychedelic substances and produced an account of the properties attributed to them, how they are prepared and used, and the shifting social attitudes that have been displayed towards them over the past half-century. He has drawn as well on his personal experiences with the agents he discusses and the experiences of people he has known and talked to. The result of this twin-pronged attack on the most perplexing intellectual problem and the most pervasive moral problem of the day— intellectual because of the difficulty in framing an adequate theory of the effect of psychedelic substances, moral because of their widespread use in contravention of the law— is a book which stands in a class by itself. 

I now turn to the relation between statements about exploitation and counterfactual statements about non-exploitative states of affairs. 1 shall consider two distinct, partially related issues. First, what are the implications of the dictum "Ought implies can" for the theory of exploitation More spedfically, what are the feasibility constraints that we must impose on the counterfactual alternative to exploitation in order to retain the moral connotations of that term Secondly, 1 shall take up an issue briefly mentioned at the beginning of the chapter how should we treat exploitation when the labour content of goods cannot be deftned because of the problem of heterogeneous labour Could we - as suggested by John Roemer- then exploitation by the presence of some state of affairs in... 

---