Primary intensities

In normal transmission geometry16 any mathematical treatment of calibration to absolute units [87-90] starts from the basic differential relation among the scattering intensity in the detector, the primary intensity and the structure... 

When light interacts with matter, several processes take place, sometimes simultaneously. It can be absorbed, which results in a decrease of the primary intensity, or it can be transmitted without attenuation. The propagation velocity v of light depends on the optical density of the medium. It is related to the absolute (vacuum) velocity of light c by... 

In the absence of absorption, x is related to the primary intensities of a beam before and after it has passed through a thickness l of the medium, by the equation... 

Thus equation (1) gives us no information about the intensity of the scattered radiation, as is also obvious from the fact that this intensity increases in proportion to the square of Ny the number of particles causing the scattering, so that by suitable choice of the crystal it could be made to exceed the primary intensity. 

Fig.l A shows the different probe concentration have distinctive luminescence courses. Both the primary intensity and the decline course are different. In Fig. IB the CL intensity influenced by FCLA concentrations is shown. The results indicates that the CL declined when the reagent concentration was >1 pmol/L. Thus the CL is influenced by the concentration of the FCLA reagent. 

The theory presented in Section 3.3.1 is called the kinematic theory of scattering. Diffraction by a three-dimensional body is, however, more complex than suggested by Fig. 3.11. On the one hand, the primary radiation is attenuated by diffraction and the secondary beams may be rediffracted. Hence, the different volume elements do not all receive the same primary intensity for this reason, the kinematic theory does not obey the law of conservation of energy. On the other hand, the interference between the primary wave and the divers diffracted waves has been neglected. All these effects generally lead to diffracted intensities that are weaker than those predicted by the kinematic theory. These... 

The lines formed by the overlap of many narrow (discrete) contributions and some continuous ones including one primary intensity plus several enhancement terms produce complicated spectrum. Fernandez and Tartari (1995) have suggested the way to overcome the difficulties that such spectral complexity introduces in the process of extracting the primary fluorescence intensity from the experimental spectrum by using a theoretical spectrum. 

The situation is different if a semiconductor detector (lithium-doped silicon crystal) and the proper electronics are available. This setup can separate K a and K radiation, so that the beam does not have to be passed through a monochromator. The counter tube itself has nowadays become easier to operate, for the semiconductor crystal no longer has to be maintained at liquid nitrogen temperature—the problem has been solved electronically. Efforts continue to find broader applications for this type of detector, since replacement of the monochromator by electronics means that there is no longer a 50 % loss of primary intensity through diffraction by the monochromator crystal or absorption by the /( filter. 

Once overexposed image areas have been processed, scatter correction can be performed. Scattered X-ray quanta are photons that were deflected from their straight (primary) direction. They are detected at positions away from where a straight primary ray would hit the detector. As a result, the primary intensity distribution for tomographic reconstruction is impaired by a secondary distribution due to scattered radiation. 

With single-row detectors of third generation CT scarmers, scatter is almost negligible, because the irradiated patient volume is reduced to a small shce by coUimation near the X-ray source. However, when working with flat-panel detectors, the collimator at the X-ray source is usually opened much more widely, and a considerable amount of scattered radiation may be produced, ft can reach a multiple of the primary intensity in case of abdominal X-ray projections and up... 

David Chalmers attempt to model core features of Fregean senses within a two-dimensional framework provides the resources to mimic at least some of the features presented above, so that a similar explication in terms of the 2-D framework can be given. On this view, what has here been called a conceptual difference, turns out to be an epistemological difference - a difference in epistemicaUy defined primary intensions of expressions. Let me, first, introduce the core ideas of Chalmers theory, then apply it to the case of reduction and finally hint to two problems that seem to occur within the framework. The summary to follow draws heavily... 

But there is more to be said primary intensions are described in purely epistemic vocabulary. This feature is, in the context of explicating a notion of reduction, highly problematic, because it blocks a way to explain the cognitive or epistemic differences between reduced and reducing item. Since pragmatic and alternative cognitive accounts suffer from a structurally similar problem, I will turn to these first and then close with a critical note on this point. 

Takada K, Kishi J, Miyasaka N. Step-up versus primary intensive approach to the treatment of interstitial pneumonia associated with dermatomyositis/polymyositis a retrospective study. Mod Rheumatol 2007 17 123-130. 

Equation (C7) makes it possible to determine the virial coefficients from classical light scattering measurements and can also be applied on X-ray and neutron scattering. In Eq. (C7), F is a constant and R(q) is the excess intensity of the scattered beam at the value q, at unit distance and unit primary intensity. A/w denotes the mass average of the molar mass and P,(q) is the z-mean of the scattering function from which the dimensions of the dissoluted polymer can be calculated ( n is the distance between scattering points 0 and n). The Q(q)-function corresponds to the q-dependence of A2. P(q) denotes the scattering function of a monodisperse polymer. 

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