Photovoltaic apphcations

International Energy Agency (IEA). 2006. Trends in photovoltaic apphcations. Report IEA-PVPS Tl-15. 

Drori T, Holt J, Vardeny ZV (2010) Optical studies of the charge transfer complex in polythiophene/fullerene blends for organic photovoltaic apphcations. Phys Rev B 82 075207... 

Henckens, A., M. Knipper, I. Rolec, J. Manca, L. Lutsen, and D. Vanderzande. 2004. Rolyjthienylene vinylene) derivatives as low band gap polymers for photovoltaic apphcations. Thin Sol Films 451-452 572. 

Similar research has been necessary to optimize formulations for applications on alternative substrate types such as BeO, low-temperature tape, and nonhybrid substrates such as glass substrates for displays, silicon (Si) for photovoltaic apphcations, and various ceramic bodies for component apphcations such as titanates for MLCs, zinc oxide varistors, and zir-conia sensors. In each apphcation, not only wiU the chemistry vary, but the particle size, surface area, and volume percentage of the respective glass compositions wiU also vary. 

Klemm, S. Pust, S. Hassel, A. Hiipkes, J. Mayihofer, K. J. 2012. Electrochemical texturing of Al-doped ZnO thin films for photovoltaic apphcations. J. Solid State Electrochem., 16, 283—290. 

Cmcial to photovoltaic apphcations, the first observation of a photoinduced charge transfer in double-cable polyfiillerenes was reported in 2000. Polymer 6, an electrochemically prepared polythiophene carrying fulleropyrrolidine moieties, was studied by means of different techniques, including steady-state photoexcited spectroscopy and light-induced electron spin resonance (Figure 8.5) [22, 23]. 

Another growing apphcation that overlaps the electrically functional area is the use of transparent conductive coatings or tin oxide, indium—tin oxide, and similar materials in photovoltaic solar ceUs and various optic electronic apphcations (see Photovoltaic cells). These coatings are deposited by PVD techniques as weU as by spray pyrolysis, which is a CVD process. 

Photovoltaic devices typically consist of a series of thin semiconductor layers that are designed to convert sunlight to dkect-current electricity (see Semiconductors). As long as the device is exposed to sunlight, a photovoltaic (PV) cell produces an electric current proportional to the amount of light it receives. The photovoltaic effect, first observed in 1839, did not see commercial appHcation until the 1950s when photovoltaic modules were used to power early space sateHites. Many good descriptions of the photovoltaic phenomenon are available (7). 

Uses. Tballium compounds have limited use in industrial appHcations. The use of thaHous sulfate in rodenticides and insecticides has been replaced by other compounds less harmful to animals (see Insect control technology Pesticides). Tb allium sulfide has been used in photoelectric cells (see Photovoltaic cells). A thallium bromide—thallium iodide mixture is used to transmit infrared radiation for signal systems. ThaHous oxide is used in the manufacture of glass (qv) that has a high coefficient of refraction. Tb allium formate—malonate aqueous solutions (Cletici s solution) have been used in mineral separations. Many thallium compounds have been used as reagents in organic synthesis in researchlaboratoti.es. 

Fig. 4.14 SEM micrograph of CVD nickel-coated carbon microfibers (INCOEIBER 12K20) before (a) and after (b) the cathodic electrosynthesis of ZnSe on their surfaces (the scale bar is 8 and 10 p.m, respectively). Such low-dimensional substrates find apphcation in new-generation photovoltaic solar cells, chemical/biological sensors, and light-emitting devices. (Reprinted from [127], Copyright 2009, with permission from Elsevier)...

In conclusion, the huge and rapidly growing markets for printed electronics are providing the motivation for new developments in the field of conductive inkjet materials and technologies. In particular, conductive inkjet inks will find their place in new generation photovoltaics, OLEDs, and flexible consumer products. Inkjet printing of electronics will continue to offer tremendous opportunities in academia and industry in order to solve problems, to improve existing applications, and even to create new apphcations enabled by novel techniques and approaches. 

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