Organisation of the book

The modern rapid methods for DNA sequencing fall into two broad groups depending on the procedures used to generate and relate sets of labelled oligonucleotides which, after resolution by gel electrophoresis, permit the DNA sequence to be deduced. 

The forerunner of the primed synthesis methods was the plus and minus method developed by Sanger and Coulson in 1975 and this marked the first real breakthrough in the search for new and efficient ways of sequencing DNA. This method is the subject of Chapter 2. By itself this procedure does have distinct limitations and additional back-up procedures had to be employed to confirm regions of the sequences deduced. One of these, the depurination method originally introduced by Burton and Petersen, proved a particularly useful adjunct and a description of this method is included as applied to the analysis of pyrimidine clusters in the 

Chapter 4 describes the application of primed synthesis methods to sequencing single stranded DNAs prepared by cloning restriction fragments into derivatives of the single stranded DNA phage 

With this wealth of techniques available the main problem is likely to be one of selection. As far as possible the advantages of the different methods are discussed to help in choosing the most appropriate method for a particular problem. 

At the end of this volume a series of appendices give useful information regarding sources of enzymes etc. 

The next section briefly consideres different types of faults and possible causes for them before a brief survey of fault detection methods is given. The purpose of the overview is to classify quantitative bond graph model-based FDI in the context of fault detection methods. 

Section 1.2 gives a literature review of various approaches to a bond graph representation of hybrid system models. In particular, the section discusses the representation of fast switching devices by means of non-ideal switches with fixed mode-independent causality and addresses the equation formulation as a DAE system. 

Clearly, for FDI it is necessary that a system is structurally observable. As switches temporarily disconnect and reconnect model parts they change the structure of a hybrid system model. Consequently, control properties, i.e. structural observability and structural controllability as well as characteristics of the mathematical model derived fl om the bond graph, i.e. the number of state variables, or the index of a DAE system become system mode dependent. Chapters briefly addresses these issues by confining to switched LTI systems and provides some small illustrating examples. 

Chapter4 presents bond graph model-based quantitative FDI for hybrid systems. As the approach uses ARRs and their residuals as fault indicators, the generation of 

ARRs from a bond graph representing a hybrid system model and the condensation of structural information in a system mode dependent stmctural fault signature matrix are presented. The chapter concludes by addressing off-line numerical computation of ARR residuals. To that end, a model of a system subject to faults is coupled to a bond graph of the healthy system by means of so-called residual sinks. This way, faults may be deliberately introduced without any risk and their effect, detection and isolation may be studied. 

The present book is organised in the form of main text, summaries, and appendices. To preserve the main idea of the individual chapters, additional material to the topics of secondary importance is presented in the appendices. There are also appendices to introduce fields which play a marginal role for this book. Some tables of correction factors for experimental methods, special functions, and data on surfactants and solvents have also been included. 

The first three chapters should be regarded as an introduction to the broad area of the dynamics of adsorption, while subsequent chapters contain original results, some of them not yet published. 

Before starting with dynamic effects at a liquid interface, the equilibrium state of adsorption is described and adsorption isotherms as basic requirements for theories of adsorption dynamics are reviewed. Chapter 2 presents the transfer from thermodynamics to macro-kinetics of adsorption. As Chapter 7 deals with the peculiarities of ionic siu-factant adsorption and introduces some properties of electric double layers. 

The aim of Chapter 3 is to demonstrate the complexity of the coupling of surface rheology and bulk transport processes. It also demonstrates the close link of surface rheology and interfacial relaxation processes. 

An overview of the separate chapters of the book can be easily gained by reading the chapter summaries. These contain analysis of unsolved problems and ideas for further developments of specific areas. 

Chemical methods of analysis are simple and cheap but labour intensive. However, they are essential, coupled with spectroscopic techniques, for deformulation work and in the analysis of additives such as anti-oxidants and stabilisers. Specific examples of the use of these procedures for polypropylene, PVC, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) and polyamides are detailed in chapter 2. 

Spectroscopic techniques are of great importance in polymer science, as they are in all branches of the chemical sciences, and these are dealt with in chapters 3 and 4. NMR is of prime importance as a method for identification and elucidation of the structure of polymer chains, and a complete chapter has been devoted to this technique. In recent years it has become an increasingly sophisticated and correspondingly expensive technique, requiring considerable skill in operating the spectrometer and in interpreting spectra, but it is still available in a simple and routine form in many laboratories. Vibrational spectroscopy encompasses infrared (IR) and Raman. These techniques, IR in 

Solution techniques are necessary to achieve separations of complex formulations and to determine molar mass and molar-mass distribution. These are primary characteristics of polymers and their measurement is dealt with in chapters 5 and 6. GPC is the most commonly used technique here, as it is the only simple way to obtain the molar-mass distribution, making it particularly useful for fingerprinting purposes. However, it is not an absolute technique but requires calibration, and consequently there is still a great interest in determining absolute molar masses as described in chapter 5. 

Thermal methods of analysis are now routinely used to characterise polymers. Modem computerised instrumentation enables DSC, TGA, DMTA and associated analyses to be carried out quickly and simply. These techniques now rank alongside SEC and IR as routine procedures to be applied to any newly synthesised polymer. They are described in chapter 7. 

The ultimate use of any polymeric material is to fabricate it into a useful product with appropriate mechanical and structural properties such as strength, hardness and flexibility. Although the measurement of mechanical properties is not usually regarded as polymer characterisation , it was thought relevant and worthy of inclusion as chapter 9. 

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The organisation of the book is a direct reflection of the logic which has been used in developing hard materials. One of the great attractions of the subject has been the close link that exists between hardness on the one hand and the bonding and structure of the material on the other. The link between these two has proved to be one of the best foundations on which to base materials development. The link is a central theme in the first part of the book where fine examples are given of the rich contribution which has been made and which continues to be made by fundamental studies of bonding and structure to materials performance. 

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