Non-fiber raw material

As shown in Figure 1.3, the raw materials or primary resources from which polymers are produced are crude oil, natural gas, chlorine, and nitrogen. These are refined into basic petrochemicals such as ethylene, propylene, styrene, and butadiene. These then are further processed into various polymer materials. During processing other non-petrochemical raw materials such as fillers or reinforcing fibers may be added for color, strength, and other purposes. 

In conclusion, the economically competitive, non-subsidized production of liquid biofuels requires (a) the use cheaper and more reliable sources of renewable raw material (b) efficient conversion, with minimum waste, of cellulosic, fiber or wood-based, waste biomass into fermentable sugars (c) significantly improved efficiency of the production processes and (d) use by-products (e.g., glycerol in biodiesel production). Several of these aspects are discussed in details in various chapters. 

PET fiber is made from raw materials that are cheap and available, due to the large manufacturing infrastructure it shares with other common products, e.g. antifreeze and soda bottles. The polymerization byproducts are non-polluting, and the polymer can be recycled. 

Practically any natural plant can be utilized as a source of papermaking fibers, but there is considerable variation in the quality of paper realized from alternate plant sources. Factors such as fiber length, content of non-fibrous components such as parenchyma tissue, contaminants such as silica, etc. greatly influence the quality of the final sheet. Procurement of sufficient quantities of the raw material and seasonal fluctuations in supply can also pose problems. It is also necessary to use alternate pulping equipment to handle the plant materials since the material tends to mat down in the digester making it difficult to get uniform circulation of the cooking chemicals. 

Raw materials for the pulp and paper industry can be classified as fibrous and non-fibrous. Wood accounts for over 95 percent of the fibrous raw material (other than waste paper) in the United States. Cotton and linen rags, cotton linters, cereal straws, esparto, hemp, jute, flax, bagasse, and bamboo also are used and in some countries are the major source of papermaking fiber. 

Biotechnology research is seeking to develop new foods, feeds, fiber, and biomass energy production processes that are environmentally safe. Researchers are developing new uses for agricultural products to replace non-renewable sources of raw materials. Their work promises to have broad commercial applications and has already led to the creation of new industries. These discoveries have led to environmentally compatible commercial products such as biodegradable plastics (60), soybean oil printing inks, and super absorbent polymers (67). 

Although less studied than polysaccharides, proteins have been traditionally used as raw materials in a wide range of non-food applications such as adhesives, glues, paints, textile fibers, paper coatings, and various molded plastic items. Proteins can be classified according to their shape and solubility as fibrous, globular, or membrane proteins, and among their possible source are included plants, animals, and bacteria [168]. 

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