Parkinson’s disease movement disorders

Klaver, R, FeU, J., Weis, S., de Greiff, A., Ruhlmann, J., Reul, J., Eiger, C. E., and Fernandez, G. 2004. Using visual advance information An event-related functional MRI study. Cogn. Brain Res. 20 242-255. Klockgether, T. and Dichgans, J. 1994. Visual control of arm movement in Parkinson s disease. Mov. Disord. 9 48-56. 

Jellinger KA. Movement disorders with tau protein cytoskeletal pathology. Parkinson s disease. In Stern GM, ed. Advances in Neurology. Vol. 80. Philadelphia Lippincott, Williams Wilkins, 1999 393-311. 

Goetz, Christopher G., Joanne Wuu, Michael P. McDermott, Charles H. Adler, Stanley Fahn, Curt R. Freed, Robert A. Hauser, Warren C. Olanow, Ira Shoulson, P. K. Tandon, Parkinson Study Group and Sue Leurgans, Placebo Response in Parkinson s Disease Comparisons among 11 Trials Covering Medical and Surgical Interventions , Movement Disorders 5 (2008) 690-99... 

Disorders of the human cerebellum result in three types of abnormalities. The first is hypotonia or reduced muscle tone. Another includes abnormalities in the execution of voluntary movements or ataxia (defective muscular coordination). The third type of muscular malfunction is intention tremors. These tremors differ from the resting tremors of Parkinson s disease in that they occur during a movement and are most pronounced at the end of the movement when the patient attempts to terminate it. 

Rye D., Daley J., Freeman A., Bliwise D. (2003). Daytime sleepiness and sleep attacks in idiopathic parkinson s disease. In Bedard M-A., Agid Y., Chouinard S. et al. editors. Mental and Behavioral Dysfunction in Movement Disorders. Totawa, NJ Humana Press pp. 527-38. 

Basal ganglia A group of networked structures in the brain which control voluntary movement. Two basal ganglia disorders are Huntington s disease and Parkinson s disease. 

Parkinson s disease (PD) is a hypokinetic movement disorder 766 Huntington s disease is a hyperkinetic movement disorder 771 Wilson s disease is a disease of copper accumulation 773 Dystonia is characterized by sustained muscle contractions 775 Many drugs and toxins induce movement disorders 776... 

Gibb WRG. (1998). The neuropathology of parkinsonian disorders. In Parkinson s Disease and Movement Disorders, 3rd ed. Jankovic J, Tolosa E, ed. Baltimore Williams and Wilkins. 

Parkinsonism, or Parkinson s disease, is named for James Parkinson who first described the disease back in 1817. It is nsnally a disease of the elderly characterized by a spectrnm of movement disorders involnntary movements, rigidity, slowness, and loss of balance. It may progress to mental impairment, including depression. This is basically the same spectrum of movement disorders sometimes seen in schizophrenia patients taking dopamine antagonists. This snggests that parkinsonism may reflect, in some manner, a deficit in dopamine activity. 

Some mental disorders also appear to result from disruption of the natural flow of neurotransmitters between neurons. For example, scientists now believe that the disorder known as Parkinson s disease may result from a deficiency of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Parkinson s disease is characterized by muscular rigidity, tremor while the person is at rest, difficulty in initiating movement (a condition known as hradykinesia), slowness of voluntary movement, difficulty with balance, and difficulty with walking. When the neuronal cells that produce dopamine begin to deteriorate, they release less of the neurotransmitter the normal flow of dopamine between cells is reduced and disruptions of normal nerve patterns develop, as evidenced by the symptoms described. 

Nerve cells communicate by the release of chemicals (neurotransmitters) into the space between the cells (Figure 15.2). The neurotransmitter is typically stored in a small packet (synaptic vesicle) and then released in response to a signal that is transmitted down the cell axon. In the example in Figure 15.2, dopamine, an important neurotransmitter involved in movement disorders related to Parkinson s disease, is released into the gap (synaptic cleft) and reacts with specific receptors on the adjacent cell. This in turn causes a reaction in the adjacent cell. Dopamine in the gap can either be broken down or taken back up into the cell that released it and repackaged for future use. 

In Parkinson s disease the dopamine-releasing cells are damaged or die, thus reducing the release of dopamine. Loss of the dopamine neurotransmitter contributes to the movement disorders associated with Parkinson s disease. Typically, the loss of dopamine-producing cells in a very specific location in the brain does not become evident until old age, and for a long time Parkinson s disease was thought of as... 

Parkinson s disease-like movement disorders. Therefore, the motor dysfunctions observed in patients chronically treated with antipsychotics are seemingly due to alterations in D2 receptor density. 

Faber R, Trumble MR. Electroconvulsive therapy in Parkinson s disease and other movement disorders. Movement Disord 1991 6 293-303. 

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