Intensity minimum

Figure 2. An example of typical computer print out showing (a) the histogram of pixel frequency versus intensity with values of maximum and minimum intensity (b) adjusted raw data image (c) binary image and (d) calculated stereological parameters.

In the particular case of a photocathode, this fluctuation affects both the dark current it) as well as the illumination induced current (/lum)- In the absence of illumination, the only current generated in the photocathode is the dark current, and so the shot noise associated with it is Aif If the light-induced current, /lum. is smaller than the shot noise associated with the dark signal Ai,), then it will be not possible to distinguish any light-induced current. In these conditions, the incident light cannot be detected by the photomultiplier, as it is not possible to separate the noise and the signal. As a consequence, the shot noise associated with the dark current determines the minimum intensity that can be detected by a particular photomultiplier (or by a particular photocathode). This is clearly shown in the next example. 

Additionally, the photocathode dark current will be amplified by a factor G before arriving at the anode. Therefore, the minimum intensity that can be detected at the anode, at room temperature, is given by... 

Searches through the MSSS data base can be carried out in a number of ways. With the mass spectrum of an unknown in hand, the search can be conducted interactively, as is shown in Figure 5. In this search the user finds that 24 data base spectra have a base peak (minimum intensity 100% maximum intensity 100%) and an m/e value of 344. When this subset is examined for spectra containing a peak at m/e 326 with intensity of less than 10%, only 2 spectra are found. If necessary, the search can be continued in this way until a manageable number of spectra are retrieved as fulfilling all the criteria that the user cited. These answers can then be listed as is shown. Alternatively, the data base can be examined for all occurrences of a specific molecular weight or a partial or complete molecular formula. Combinations of these properties can also be used in searches. Thus all compounds containing for example, five chlorines and whose mass spectra have a base peak at a particular m/e value can be identified. 

In addition, it is important to note that the phase behavior of PHIP NMR signals differs substantially from that in standard NMR experiments. For normal NMR spectroscopy, a 90° pulse renders the maximum possible signal intensity, while a 180° pulse gives no intensity at all. This is not true for PHIP spectra In PHIP NMR, the maximum signal intensity is achieved by a 45° pulse a 90° pulse is here the zero-crossing (like 180° in standard NMR, yielding minimum intensity). 

With the compensator set for no compensation and (depending on the age of the microscope) and the polarizer and analyzer set for extinction, rotate the microscope stage, observing the intensity of light transmitted through the sample. A point of minimum intensity should easily be found (see Note 5). 

If a point of minimum intensity cannot by found, the sample must be annealed using the hot stage to reduce its anisotropy. 

With the given n1 and n2 values, the maximum and minimum intensities of the reflected light - seen as interference colors - can be calculated and agree well with experimental results [5.206]. Refractive indices of materials commonly used in nacreous pigments follow ... 

For cases in which the spectra do not share a common band, it might be better to normalize the spectra so that the total area under the spectrum is 1.0. Prior to normalizing by any method, it is important to zero the baseline of the spectra by subtracting the minimum intensity from the intensities at every frequency. Normalizing the total area under the spectral curve is most useful for searching libraries and for putting the unknown and library spectra on the same scale. In this method, the intensity at each frequency in the spectrum is divided by the square root of the sum of the squares of all the intensities, i.e.,... 

Animal nr. 1 is exposed to 30 mA of ECS. If animal nr. 1 does not convulse (tonic convulsions) within 5 seconds maximum, animal nr. 2 is exposed to 40 mA, with increases of 10 mA until the first tonic convulsion is observed. Once the first tonic convulsion is observed, the intensity of ECS is decreased by 5 mA for the next animal and then the intensity is decreased or increased by 5 mA from animal to animal depending on whether the animal convulses or not. The minimum intensity given is 5 mA and the maximum intensity given is 95 mA. 

The Raman spectra were recorded in the backscattering geometry on a Labram I (Jobin-Yvon, Horiba Group, France) microspectrometer in conjunction with a confocal microscope. To avoid any thermal photochemical effect, we have used a minimum intensity laser power on sample of 370 pW with the 514.5 nm incident line from an Ar-Kr laser from Spectra Physics. Detection was achieved with an air cooled CCD detector and a 1800 grooves/mm, giving a spectral resolution of 4 cm-1. An acquisition time of 120 s was used for each spectrum. The confocal aperture was adjusted to 200 pm and a 50 X objective of 0.75 numerical aperture was used. 

The relationship established between the change of the mobility of highly-concentrated composite particles and the change of the free volume in it warrants certain technological predictions. Thus, for mixtures whose composition complies with the condition Pr, -i = 0.15-0.17 rapid processing by moulding without injection is possible or by vibromoulding with a minimum intensity of vibrational action. For mixtures whose composition complies with the condition [Pg.141]

A good powder photograph has sharp intense lines superimposed on a background of minimum intensity. However, the diffraction lines themselves vary in intensity, because of the structure of the crystal itself, and an appreciable background intensity may exist, due to a number of causes. The two effects together may cause the weakest diffraction line to be almost invisible in relation to the background. 

---