Measurements of causes

Measurements of causes (the immediate and underiying causes of accidents)... 

Measurements of causes relate to the factors that lead to accidents. They include both immediate causes, such as substandard acts and substandard conditions, and their underlying causes, such as individual and work factors. Individual factor causes include inadequate knowledge, skQl, motivation, and capabihty. Work factors include such things as inadequate training, supervision, design, purchasing, inspections, and so forth. If not controlled, the two types of causes—immediate and underlying— can lead to accidents. 

Measurements of causes usually refer to measuring substandard acts and site conditions. These types of causes immediately precede an accident. These substandard acts and site conditions are usually identified in large numbers and therefore need to be measured appropriately to enable good use of the data. There are two common ways of doing this. The first, and by far the most common, is to identify the immediate causes from investigation reports the second is to determine the substandard acts (behaviors) and conditions that could result in an accident. 

However the forms of the curves in fig. 5 are not fully symraetrieal. There are several causes for this nonlinear behaviour. For instance even small un-symmetrics in the coil construction or measurement errors caused by small differences in the position of the coil to the underground or the direction of coil movement influence the measured data and results in mistakes. 

The condition for zeroing the system before the measurement is caused by the need to diminish the influence of temperature change on the test result. 

We therefore conclude that the act of carrying out an experimental measurement disturbs the system in that it causes the system s wavefunction to become an eigenfunction of the operator whose property is measured. If two properties whose corresponding operators commute are measured, the measurement of the second property does not destroy knowledge of the first property s value gained in the first measurement. 

In a gravimetric analysis a measurement of mass or change in mass provides quantitative information about the amount of analyte in a sample. The most common form of gravimetry uses a precipitation reaction to generate a product whose mass is proportional to the analyte. In many cases the precipitate includes the analyte however, an indirect analysis in which the analyte causes the precipitation of another compound also is possible. Precipitation gravimetric procedures must be carefully controlled to produce precipitates that are easily filterable, free from impurities, and of known stoichiometry. 

Bombardment of a liquid surface by a beam of fast atoms (or fast ions) causes continuous desorption of ions that are characteristic of the liquid. Where the liquid is a solution of a sample substance dissolved in a solvent of low volatility (often referred to as a matrix), both positive and negative ions characteristic of the solvent and the sample itself leave the surface. The choice of whether to examine the positive or the negative ions is effected simply by the sign of an electrical potential applied to an extraction plate held above the surface being bombarded. Usually, few fragment ions are observed, and a sample of mass M in a solvent of mass S will give mostly [M + H] (or [M - H] ) and [S -I- H]+ (or [S - H] ) ions. Therefore, the technique is particularly good for measurement of relative molecular mass. 

Polyolefin melts have a high degree of viscoelastic memory or elasticity. First normal stress differences of polyolefins, a rheological measure of melt elasticity, are shown in Figure 9 (30). At a fixed molecular weight and shear rate, the first normal stress difference increases as MJM increases. The high shear rate obtained in fine capillaries, typically on the order of 10 , coupled with the viscoelastic memory, causes the filament to swell (die swell or... 

The aroma of fmit, the taste of candy, and the texture of bread are examples of flavor perception. In each case, physical and chemical stmctures ia these foods stimulate receptors ia the nose and mouth. Impulses from these receptors are then processed iato perceptions of flavor by the brain. Attention, emotion, memory, cognition, and other brain functions combine with these perceptions to cause behavior, eg, a sense of pleasure, a memory, an idea, a fantasy, a purchase. These are psychological processes and as such have all the complexities of the human mind. Flavor characterization attempts to define what causes flavor and to determine if human response to flavor can be predicted. The ways ia which simple flavor active substances, flavorants, produce perceptions are described both ia terms of the physiology, ie, transduction, and psychophysics, ie, dose-response relationships, of flavor (1,2). Progress has been made ia understanding how perceptions of simple flavorants are processed iato hedonic behavior, ie, degree of liking, or concept formation, eg, crispy or umami (savory) (3,4). However, it is unclear how complex mixtures of flavorants are perceived or what behavior they cause. Flavor characterization involves the chemical measurement of iadividual flavorants and the use of sensory tests to determine their impact on behavior. 

A hardness indentation causes both elastic and plastic deformations which activate certain strengthening mechanisms in metals. Dislocations created by the deformation result in strain hardening of metals. Thus the indentation hardness test, which is a measure of resistance to deformation, is affected by the rate of strain hardening. 

Because they are weak acids or bases, the iadicators may affect the pH of the sample, especially ia the case of a poorly buffered solution. Variations in the ionic strength or solvent composition, or both, also can produce large uncertainties in pH measurements, presumably caused by changes in the equihbria of the indicator species. Specific chemical reactions also may occur between solutes in the sample and the indicator species to produce appreciable pH errors. Examples of such interferences include binding of the indicator forms by proteins and colloidal substances and direct reaction with sample components, eg, oxidising agents and heavy-metal ions. 

Raman spectroscopy, long used for quaHtative analysis, has been revitalized by the availabiHty of laser sources. Raman spectroscopy is based on scattering of light with an accompanying shift in frequency. The amount by which the frequency is shifted is characteristic of the molecules that cause the scattering. Hence, measurement of the frequency shift can lead to identification of the material. 

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