Matter properties, observation

We hope that this brief review will help to link advanced theoretical research in physics of extremely dense matter with observational properties of compact objects. 

Matter will be used here to refer to the bearer of substance properties such as the elemental ones, with no implication of the features sometimes ascribed to the so-called prime matter, such as imperceptibility and pure potentiality. Matter is observable unless of microscopic dimensions, and endowed with potentialities in virtue of the properties it bears. 

Chemistry is the study of the properties and behavior of matter. Matter is the physical material of the universe it is anything that has mass and occupies space. A property is any characteristic that allows us to recognize a particular type of matter and to distinguish it from other types. This book, your body, the air you are breathing, and the clothes you are wearing are all samples of matter. We observe a tremendous variety of matter in our world, but countless experiments have shown that all matter is comprised of combinations of only about 100 substances called elements. One of our major goals will be to relate the properties of matter to its composition, that is, to the particular elements it contains. 

Without the periodic law we could not either predict the properties of unknown elements or even determine the lack or absence of some of them. The discovery of elements was a matter of observation alone. Therefore, only blind cbance, acumen, and foresight led to the discovery of new elements. The periodic law opens a new road in this respect. By these words D. I. Mendeleev expressed the idea that time had come in the history of chemical elements when it had become possible to forecast the existence of elements and to predict their most important properties. 

Nowadays, more than fifty years later, a continuously improved control on matter at small length-scales has been made possible by the advancement of lithographic, etching, assembly and surface functionalization technologies. The new properties observed in matter at the nanoscale include many quantum effects due to the confinement of electrons or of excitons within nanostructures, together with a great variety of phenomena related to the enormously increased surface-to-volume ratios of nanostructures compared to bulk materials. The control of scientists over atoms and molecules extends... 

Chemical equilibrium, at a given temperature, is characterised by constancy of macroscopic properties — observable properties such as colour, pressure, concentration, density, etc. — in a closed system (a system containing a constant amount of matter) at a uniform temperature. Microscopic processes (changes at the molecular level), however, continue but in a balance that yields no macroscopic... 

Thermodynamic, statistical This discipline tries to compute macroscopic properties of materials from more basic structures of matter. These properties are not necessarily static properties as in conventional mechanics. The problems in statistical thermodynamics fall into two categories. First it involves the study of the structure of phenomenological frameworks and the interrelations among observable macroscopic quantities. The secondary category involves the calculations of the actual values of phenomenology parameters such as viscosity or phase transition temperatures from more microscopic parameters. With this technique, understanding general relations requires only a model specified by fairly broad and abstract conditions. Realistically detailed models are not needed to un-... 

Not all observations are summarized by laws. There are many properties of matter (such as superconductivity, the ability of a few cold solids to conduct electricity without any resistance) that are currently at the forefront of research but are not described by grand laws that embrace hundreds of different compounds. A major current puzzle, which might be resolved in the future either hy finding the appropriate law or by detailed individual computation, is what determines the shapes of big protein molecules. Formulating a law is just one way, not the only way, of summarizing data. 

Chemistry is concerned with the properties of matter, its distinguishing characteristics. A physical property of a substance is a characteristic that we can observe or measure without changing the identity of the substance. For example, a physical property of a sample of water is its mass another is its temperature. Physical properties include characteristics such as melting point (the temperature at which a solid turns into a liquid), hardness, color, state of matter (solid, liquid, or gas), and density. A chemical property refers to the ability of a substance to change into another substance. For example, a chemical property of the gas hydrogen is that it reacts with (burns in) oxygen to produce water a chemical property of the metal zinc is that it reacts with acids to produce hydrogen gas. The rest of the book is concerned primarily with chemical properties here we shall review some important physical properties. 

The three representations that are referred to in this study are (1) macroscopic representations that describe the bulk observable properties of matter, for example, heat energy, pH and colour changes, and the formation of gases and precipitates, (2) submicroscopic (or molecular) representations that provide explanations at the particulate level in which matter is described as being composed of atoms, molecules and ions, and (3) symbolic (or iconic) representations that involve the use of chemical symbols, formulas and equations, as well as molecular structure drawings, models and computer simulations that symbolise matter (Andersson, 1986 Boo, 1998 Johnstone, 1991, 1993 Nakhleh Krajcik, 1994 Treagust Chittleborough, 2001). 

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