Matter energy content

The time-evolution of H describes the evolution of the universe. Employing the Robertson-Walker metric in the Einstein equations of General Relativity (relating matter/energy content to geometry) leads to the Friedmann equation... 

The next concept which we wish to examine is that of the differences between the three states of matter, gases, liquids and solids. In this case, we will find very significant differences in their energy content, namely that the gaseous form is the most energetic while the solid has the least energy. 

Temperature expresses the thermal level of a system and not its energy content. (A fivefold mass of a matter has fivefold thermal energy at the same temperature.) The thermal energy of a system can indeed be converted into the mechanical energy (base unit Joule). Moles are amounts of matter and must not be confused with the quantity of mass. Molecules react as individual entities regardless of their mass one mole of hydrogen (2g/mol) reacts with one mole of chlorine (71 g/mol) to produce two moles of hydrochloric acid, HCl. 

Zduhczyk et ol. (1996) studied the nutritive value of low-alkaloid varieties of white lupin and found that the lysine contents were relatively low (4.70-5.25g/16g N), with methionine as the limiting AA. Roth-Maier and Paulicks (2004) studied the digestibility and energy contents of the seeds of sweet blue lupins (L. angustifolius) and found digestibility coefficients of 0.43-0.5 for organic matter, 0.36-0.43 for protein, 0.69-0.83 for fat, 0.46-0.58 for NFE and an ME concentration of 7.54-8.22 MJ. 

In Chap. 1, we introduced the book with a quote from Albert Einstein (Schilpp 1949), which read in part that classical thermodynamics... is the only physical theory of universal content concerning which I am convinced that, within the framework of the applicability of its basic concepts, it will never be overthrown. An important qualification to this statement is the phrase within the framework of the applicability of its basic concepts. The laws of thermodynamics are based on laboratory-scale experiments. To assume that such laws are applicable to the Universe is a big assumption. However, we have no evidence yet that contradicts this assumption on the scales of problems relevant to life. Moreover, there remain vast cosmological questions with no answers and definitely no understanding of implications even if we knew the answers. For instance, does the proton have a very long but finite radioactive half-life Does the neutrino have a very small but finite mass Is the Universe opened or closed with respect to expansion and gravitational contraction Also, the Universe may not be isolated with respect to matter/energy or it could be isolated and cyclical. 

We live in a time of great observational advances in cosmology, which have given us a consistent picture of the matter and energy content of our Universe. Here matter and energy (which special relativity tells us are equivalent) are distinguished by their different dependence on the cosmic volume matter density decreases with the inverse of the volume, while energy density remains (approximately) constant. 

There are also disadvantages. First, litliium batteries are very expensive. Compared on tiie basis of equal energy content, they may cost three to five times more than Leclanch cells. More serious is the matter of safety. For low power applications, these batteries are quite safe, but high power lithium batteries have been known to explode. For example, accidental heating may melt the lithium (m.p. 180.5°C). This can rupture the protective SET layer, leading to a violent reaction between the metal and the solvent, and eventually to explosion. 

Charcoal yields and the volatile matter content of the charcoal produced decrease with increasing temperature (see figure 2). For willow wood the required diarcoal yield of 0.38 kg/kg dry feed can be obtained at a temperature of 350-400 C, giving a product with a volatile matter content of 30-50 wt,%. In this temperature range 46-60% (LHV-basis) of the energy content of the feedstock is retained in the charcoal. 

Relate the properties of a state to the energy content and particle arrangement of that state of matter. 

---