Magnifier

It can be observed from the Figure 1 that the sensitivity of I.I. system is quite low at lower thicknesses and improves as the thicknesses increase. Further the sensitivity is low in case of as observed images compared to processed images. This can be attributed to the quantum fluctuations in the number of photons received and also to the electronic and screen noise. Integration of the images reduces this noise by a factor of N where N is the number of frames. Another observation of interest from the experiment was that if the orientation of the wires was horizontal there was a decrease in the observed sensitivity. It can be observed from the contrast response curves that the response for defect detection is better in magnified modes compared to normal mode of the II tube. Further, it can be observed that the vertical resolution is better compared to horizontal which is in line with prediction by the sensitivity curves. 

Fig. 4 Typical MTF curves for the Gd based RTR system in normal mode and magnified mode...

The zoom optics between the image intensifier and the video camera gives the freedom to magnify details of the image for more detailed inspection. 

Fig. II-6. Capillary rise (capillary much magnified in relation to dish).

The above recipe can be repeated indefinitely, and the mathematical result would be what is called a self-similar profile. That is, successive magnifications of a section (in this case by factors of 3) would give magnified jagged lines which could be superimposed exactly on the original one. In this limit, one finds for this case that... 

Light microscopy is of great importance for basic research, analysis in materials science and for the practical control of fabrication steps. Wlien used conventionally it serves to reveal structures of objects which are otherwise mvisible to the eye or magnifying glass, such as micrometre-sized structures of microelectronic devices on silicon wafers. The lateral resolution of the teclmique is detennined by the wavelength of tire light... 

The magnification is rather chosen to be about 500 to 1000 where is the numerical aperture of the objective (see the next section) The eyepiece is then necessary to magnify the real image so that it can conveniently be inspected. 

An interesting historical application of the Boltzmann equation involves examination of the number density of very small spherical globules of latex suspended in water. The particles are dishibuted in the potential gradient of the gravitational field. If an arbitrary point in the suspension is selected, the number of particles N at height h pm (1 pm= 10 m) above the reference point can be counted with a magnifying lens. In one series of measurements, the number of particles per unit volume of the suspension as a function of h was as shown in Table 3-3. 

The chemistry of carboxylic acids is the central theme of this chapter The impor tance of carboxylic acids is magnified when we realize that they are the parent com pounds of a large group of derivatives that includes acyl chlorides acid anhydrides esters and amides Those classes of compounds will be discussed m Chapter 20 Together this chapter and the next tell the story of some of the most fundamental struc tural types and functional group transformations m organic and biological chemistry... 

Fig. 1. Magnified view of a part of a lead Bucky diaphragm (grid) used to diminish scattered radiation from striking a detector. The grid is placed between...

Fig. 5. Halftone dots magnified (a), (b), and (c) are 20, 50, and 80% dots at 0°, respectively (d), (e), and (f) are 50% dots at 15, 30, and 45°, respectively. Besides changing size, additional photographic steps may be required to achieve the desired effect on the printed page. For halftone images, the...

Fig. 4. Alumina—silica—chromia fiber after 120 h at 1426°C showing crystallization and sintering at contact points. Magnified x5000.

Fig. 5. Refractory fiber (1260°C) and unfiberized shot particles. Magnified x 1000.

Obstacles attend this new solution of the freshwater problem, which magnify those familiar to the chemical engineer in purifying other cheap or worthless raw materials into valuable products by treatment with chemicals or thermal or electrical energy. These obstacles are quite different from the previous main problem of water supply, ie, the factor of happenstance in finding a river or lake nearby or of making a fortunate geological strike. 

Most fractography can be conducted with simple instmments such as a pocket magnifying eyepiece or an optical microscope. As with any detective work, it is important to maintain careful records and to pay close attention to details in the reconstmctions of the conditions under which fabrication and failure occurred. Seemingly unimportant details of fabrication, service, and/or the conditions under which failure occurred can frequently be the key to determining the cause of failure. 

Fig. 11. Magnified photograph of a single carrier bead, 100 micrometers in diameter, showing smaller, attached toner particles.

---