Interpretation of rules

Vagueness in regulations creates leeway for various interpretations of rules, and since different interpretations increase the possibility that rules are applied... 

The Federal Rules of Evidence (ERE) were adopted in 1975. Subsequently most states (at least 37) have adopted their own codified rules of evidence modeled closely on the FRE. For scientific evidence, the most relevant of the Rules are found in Article VII of the FRE in a section known as Opinions and Expert Testimony. Prior to 1993, some federal appellate courts had applied Rule 702 of the Federal Rules of Evidence to medical and scientific experts. (Rule 702 authorizes scientific testimony whenever it will assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue.) In 1993, in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 509 US 579, the Supreme Court of the United States issued an important interpretation of Rule 702. Seven of the nine justices ruled that judges must serve as evidentiary gatekeepers who determine whether proffered evidence is scientifically valid and relevant. The Court suggested several factors for judges to consider in determining whether to admit a particular theory or technique Is the theory or hypothesis testable Has it been tested Has the theory or technique been subjected to peer review and publication For a particular scientific technique or methodology, what is the known or potential rate of error What (if any) are the standards that control the technique s operation To what extent is the theory or technique generally accepted in the scientific community ... 

Interpretation of Rules for Degenerate Excitations by Frozen Orbital Analysis... 

Occasionally there is tacit recognition of the informal structure by the formal since the informal level allows for practical interpretation of rules and procedures that can place restrictions on achieving enterprise targets. This flexible interpretation of the formal rules may be to the common organisational good, but may also be detrimental where they concern safe working practices. The fact of these informal interpretations can be seen in the dramatic effect of a work-to-rule in a formalised rule-based organisation. 

An interesting interpretation of rule 1 is that data on the resonance integral for a series of fuel lumps of one material can be used to compute directly the value for a related series of lumps utilizing the same absorber but in an entirely different geometry. Thus, for example, data on uranium metal rods can be used to predict the resonance integrals for UO2 spheres. It is of considerable importance to note that these rules do not depend on any knowledge whatever of the resonance parameters. They can be used both for predictive purposes and as a check on the theory. 

XIV. AMENDMENT, SUSPENSION AND INTERPRETATION OF RULES Rule 93 Amendment of Rules... 

Such a policy of pinpricks means not to support, but to disturb an effective procedure. E.g. those pinpricks may be obtained by an extreme restrictive interpretation of rules, so that an optimization progress becomes nearly impossible. 

Figure 1 Schema of the hybrid rule-based/CBR system for interpretation of URS data.

Note that if we identify the sum over 8-fimctions with the density of states, then equation (A1.6.88) is just Femii s Golden Rule, which we employed in section A 1.6.1. This is consistent with the interpretation of the absorption spectmm as the transition rate from state to state n. 

A series of monographs and correlation tables exist for the interpretation of vibrational spectra [52-55]. However, the relationship of frequency characteristics and structural features is rather complicated and the number of known correlations between IR spectra and structures is very large. In many cases, it is almost impossible to analyze a molecular structure without the aid of computational techniques. Existing approaches are mainly based on the interpretation of vibrational spectra by mathematical models, rule sets, and decision trees or fuzzy logic approaches. 

A theory is our best present interpretation of why things happen the way they do The modern ver Sion of Markovnikov s rule which is based on mecha nistic reasoning and carbocation stability recasts the rule in terms of theoretical ideas Mechanisms and explanations grounded in them belong to the theory part of the scientific method... 

Rules of matrix algebra can be appHed to the manipulation and interpretation of data in this type of matrix format. One of the most basic operations that can be performed is to plot the samples in variable-by-variable plots. When the number of variables is as small as two then it is a simple and familiar matter to constmct and analyze the plot. But if the number of variables exceeds two or three, it is obviously impractical to try to interpret the data using simple bivariate plots. Pattern recognition provides computer tools far superior to bivariate plots for understanding the data stmcture in the //-dimensional vector space. 

From a knowledge of the crystal structure it is possible to calculate selection rules for each orientation position and thus gain considerable insight into the vibrational motions of the crystal. The interpretation of such spectra, which show a lot of detail, goes well beyond characterization applications. ... 

More complete interpretations of Diels-Alder regioselectivity have been developed. MO results can be analyzed from an electrostatic perspective by calculating potentials at the various atoms in the diene and dienophile. These results give a more quantitatively accurate estimate of the substituent effects. Diels-Alder regioselectivity can also be accounted for in terms of HSAB theory (see Section 1.2.3). The expectation would be that the most polarizable (softest) atoms would lead to bond formation and that regioselectivity would reflect the best mateh between the diene and dienophile termini. These ideas have been applied using 3-2IG computations. The results are in agreement with the ortho rule for normal-electron-demand Diels-Alder reactions. ... 

Many organizations that have evolved over a long period of time come to believe that the system of safety rules that they have developed is invulnerable to human error. The existence of a "rule book" culture can produce a complacent attitude which assumes that if the rules are followed then accidents are impossible. This is based on the belief that a rigid set of rules will cover every contingency and that interpretation by individuals to cover imanticipated situations will never be required. Of course, all rules will at some time require such interpretation, and the need for this should be accepted and built into the system. 

The alternative interpretation of the second term in equation (94), i.e. that it represents a slow proton transfer to hypochlorous acid, has been ruled out on two grounds firstly, the rate of this proton transfer has been measured and found to be much higher than the first-order chlorination rate204, and, secondly, the third term should disappear when the reactivity of the aromatic is very high since then the reaction responsible for the second term would be dominant203. 

Conformational shift effects could be discussed in terms of discrete rotational isomeric states. Mainly two effects could be derived empirically to explain the shift differences due to conformational isomerism they-gauche and the Vg effect. However the spectra also indicate that the y-gauche effect is not a quantity with a universal numerical value. Furthermore the spectra of the cycloalkanes show that the conformational effects do not obey simple rules of additivity. With concern to our present knowledge great care has to be taken for the interpretation of NMR-spectra on the base of conformational shift increments which were not determined for the specific molecular structures. 

It is to be especially emphasized that problems relating to choice among various alternative structures are usually not solved directly by the application of the rules resulting from the quantum mechanics nevertheless, the interpretation of valence in terms of quantities derived from the consideration of simpler phenomena and susceptible to accurate mathematical investigation by known methods now makes it possible to attack them with a fair assurance of success in many cases. 

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