Intellectual concepts

The tremendous progress in supramolecular chemistry and nanoscience provided intellectual concepts and guidelines to implement biomolecules and nano-objects as functional units for the self-assembly of biomolecular structures, or biomolecule-nanoparticle hybrid systems. Such biomolecular supramolecular complexes or hybrid biomolecular composites are anticipated to reveal properties and functions that emerge from the complexity of the structures. 

The concept of safety refers to a reasonable certainty of no harm per the FD C Act to safe and adequate levels of nutrients, including essentiality, stability, history of use, and toxicity per LSRO or, in some circumstances, a reasonable balance between costs (e.g., risks, harm) and benefits. Safety, therefore, is not an inherent biological property, but rather a point on a continuum that is influenced by intellectual concepts and judgment. Generally, a hazard refers to a substance or combination of substances that produce undesired outcomes in the case of infant formulas, the undesired outcome is health related. Risk implies that an adverse event will be expressed under specified conditions, and harm refers to the nature of an undesired outcome associated with a hazard. Details about the concept of safety and surrounding issues are provided in Chapter 2. 

Room temperature fusion reactions, albeit low probabiHty ones, are not a new concept, having been postulated in 1948 and verified experimentally in 1956 (22), in a form of fusion known as muon-catalized fusion. Since the 1989 announcement, however, international scientific skepticism has grown to the point that cold fusion is not considered a serious subject by most scientists. FoUow-on experiments, conducted in many prestigious laboratories, have failed to confirm the claims, and although some unexplained and intellectually interesting phenomena have been recorded, the results have remained irreproducable and, thus far, not accepted by the scientific community. 

Science concepts exist on more than one intellectual level. 

Comte s three-stage principle can be applied not only to the intellectual development of all mankind, but also to the individual development of a single human being. It can also be applied to the development of an individual science at first there is a dominance of theological and mythical concepts, followed by the phase of metaphysical speculation, and finally the advanced stage of positive knowledge. 

The Woodward-Hoffmann rules have intellectual roots that can be traced back to Wigner-Witmer correlation rules (E. Wigner and E. E. Witmer, Z. Phys. 51 [1928], 859) and general correlation-diagram concepts (R. S. Mulliken, Rev. Mod. Phys. 4 [1932], 1) as employed, e.g., by K. F. Herzfeld, Rev. Mod. Phys. 41 (1949), 527. Alternative MO... 

Concept "One of the great intellectual challenges presented to Science by Nature is a proper understanding of how enzymes work. At one level we can explain enzyme catalysis -what an enzyme does is bind, and thus stabilise, selectively the transition... 

Dynamics, namely, the mechanism of chemical reactivity, was not the only conceptual core to chemistry. We might focus as well on the concepts of chemical "species" and chemical "constitution," and indeed these concepts figure in the history that follows. However, the dynamics of matter was a kernel at the heart of chemistry, with varying paces of growth. It constituted both disputed and common territory for practitioners of chemical philosophy and natural philosophy. More recently, it provided a point of controversy and an area of compromise for practitioners of the disciplines of physics and chemistry. Thus, the dynamics of matter is a theme providing especially important insights into the relations between chemistry and physics as intellectual systems, at the same time that the social dynamics of individuals and groups also helps to explain disciplinary development.8... 

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