Hypothalamic neurons

Szymusiak, R., Alam, N., Steininger, T., McGinty, D. (1998). Sleep-waking discharge patterns of ventrolateral preoptic/anterior hypothalamic neurons in rats. Brain Res. 803, 178-88. 

Haas, H. L. (1974). Histamine action on single hypothalamic neurones. Brain Res. 76, 363-6. 

Strecker, R. E., Moriarty, S., Thakkar, M. M. el al. (2000). Adenosinergic modulation of basal forebrain and preoptic/anterior hypothalamic neuronal activity in the control of behavioral state. Behav. Brain Res. 115, 183-204. 

Forebrain neurons would not be necessary for PS onset and maintenance. However, hypocretin and MCH hypothalamic neurons would participate in the homeostasis of PS through reciprocal connections and their respective excitatory and inhibitory projections on the brainstem monoaminergic and GABAergic PS-off neurons. 

Sakata, T. and Yoshimatsu, H. Homeostatic maintenance regulated by hypothalamic neuronal histamine. Methods Find. Exp. Clin. Pharmacol. 17(Suppl. C) 51-56,1995. 

As to the primary developmental actions of testosterone, growth and differentiation appear to be involved. Testosterone or estradiol stimulates outgrowth of neurites from developing hypothalamic neurons that contain estrogen receptors [14, 15]. This is believed to be one of the principal aspects of testosterone action that increases the number and the size of neurons within specific hypothalamic nuclei in males, compared to females [1, 14, 15]. 5a-DHT may have a similar effect on androgen-sensitive neurons. Differentiation of target neurons also occurs in adult brain tissue, hormones like estradiol can evoke responses that differ between adult male and female rats [1,14,15],... 

Qui J, Bosch MA, Tobias SC, Grandy DK, Scanlan TS, Ronnekleiv OK, et al. (2003) Rapid signaling of estrogen in hypothalamic neurons involves a novel G-protein-coupled estrogen receptor that activates protein kinase C. J Neurosci 3 9529-9540... 

Electrophysiological studies on primary cultures of hypothalamic neurons and C1300 neuroblastoma cells have shown that the triphenylethylene SERMs ta-... 

Hardy SP, deFelipe C, Valverde MA (1998) Inhibition of voltage-gated cationic channels in rat embryonic hypothalamic neurones and C1300 neuroblastoma cells by triph-enylethylene antioestrogens. FEBS Lett 434(3) 236-240... 

Kelly MJ, Ronnekleiv OK, Ibrahim N, Lagrange ATI, Wagner EJ (2002) Estrogen modulation of K+ channel activity in the hypothalamic neurons involved in the control of the reproductive axis. Steroids 67 447-456... 

Yoon, H., Enquist, L.W. and Dulac, C. (2005) Olfactory inputs to hypothalamic neurons controlling reproduction and fertility. Cell 123, 669-682. 

Luo L-G, Jackson IMD. 1999. Advantage of double labeled in situ hybridization for detecting the effects of glucocorticoids on the mRNAs of protooncogenes and neural peptides TRH in cultured hypothalamic neurons. Brain Res Prot 4 201-208. 

The intermediate length systems include the tuberoinfundibular system, which projects from the arcuate and periventricular nuclei into the intermediate lobe of the pituitary and the median eminence. This system is responsible for the regulation of such hormones as prolactin. The inter hypothalamic neurons send projections to the dorsal and posterior hypothalamus, the lateral septal nuclei and the medullary periventricular group, which are linked to the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus such projections may play a role in the effects of dopamine on the autonomic nervous system. 

The axonal processes of hypothalamic neurons project to the neurohypophysis, where they store the nona-peptides vasopressin (= ancidiuretic hormone, ADH) and oxytocin and release them on demand into the blood. Therapeutically (ADH, p. 64, oxytocin, p. 126), these peptide hormones are given pa-renterally or via the nasal mucosa... 

GHRF and GHRIF are peptides secreted by hypothalamic neurons termed neuroendocrine transducers (the name is apt, as these interface between the nervous and endocrine systems). The factors that regulate their secretion are poorly understood but probably involve both nerve impulses originating from within the brain and feedback mechanisms, possibly involving pituitary hormones. 

Histamine occurs in the brain, particularly in certain hypothalamic neurons, and evidence is strong that histamine is a neurotransmitter. Distribution of histamine, its synthetic enzyme (histidine decarboxylase), and methyl histamine (the major brain metabolite) is not uniform. Possible roles for histamine in the regulation of food and water intake, thermoregulation, hormone release, and sleep have been suggested. Additional information on histamine can be found in Chapter 38. 

Oxytocin (Pitocin, Syntocinon) is a cyclic 8-amino acid peptide that is synthesized in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and transported within hypothalamic neurons (in association with neurophysin) to the posterior pituitary for storage. Its mechanism of action involves the direct stimulation of oxytocin receptors found on the myometrial cells. Oxytocin circulates unbound in the plasma, where it has a half-Ufe of approximately 15 minutes. It is primarily inactivated in the kidneys and liver. 

CRH probably does not act alone. According to clinical neuroendocrinology, vasopressin is a prime candidate for the synergy of CRH effects at pituitary CRHj receptors, and it also has behavioral effects that are compatible with a role in depression. Chronic psychosocial stress enhances vasopressin expression and increases the number of hypothalamic neurons coexpressing CRH and vasopressin. Infusion of an antisense oligodeoxy-nucleotide, which corresponds to the mRNA of vasopressin type 1 receptor, into the septum led to reduced anxiety-related behavior that parallels decreases in vasopressin receptor binding (Landgraf et al. 1995). 

Glycine receptor Quercetin Genistein Rat hippocampal neurons Xenopus laevis oocytes Rat neurons Rat hypothalamic Neurons Desensitization Inhibition Inhibition Inhibition Sun et ah, 2007 Lee et ah, 2008 Zhu et ah, 2003 Huang and Dillon, 2000... 

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